Molecular containers and methods of making and using same

ABSTRACT

Acyclic CB[n]-type compounds, methods of making such compounds, and uses of the compounds. For example, these compounds can be used as nanocontainers to solubilize pharmaceutical agents. Also provided are compositions and methods of using them for therapy or prophylaxis of a wide variety of conditions for which therapy or prophylaxis is desirable.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No. 62/009,686, filed Jun. 9, 2014, and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/878,613, filed Nov. 18, 2013, which is a national phase application based on PCT/US11/56127, filed on Oct. 13, 2011, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application Nos. 61/392,722, filed Oct. 13, 2010, and 61/392,729, filed Oct. 13, 2010, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under grant no. R01-CA168365 from the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

The present invention generally relates to molecular containers. More particularly, the present invention relates to acyclic CB[n]-type compounds, and methods of making and using such compounds.

BACKGROUND

Only 1 out of 10,000 novel drug candidates makes it through the drug development pipelines to reach the pharmacy shelves. It is estimated that about 40% of novel drug candidates fail due to low bioavailability associated with poor aqueous solubility. Many drug candidates that exhibit high potency are abandoned by pharmaceutical companies because of poor bioavailability. One of the most common problems is that the drug candidates exhibit poor solubility in aqueous solution and therefore are difficult to formulate. One solution that has been employed by the pharmaceutical industry is to encapsulate drugs inside cyclodextrins. However, cyclodextrin-based solubility enhancement is not a universal solution. Therefore, there is an ongoing need for improved compositions for increasing solubility of pharmaceutical agents. The present invention meets these and other needs.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure provides a method for enhancing the therapeutic effect of one or more poorly water soluble drugs in an individual in need of the therapeutic effect. In embodiments, the poorly soluble drug has a solubility in water or in an aqueous buffer of less than 1.0 mM. or 0.9 mM, or 0.8 mM, or 0.7 mM, or 0.6 mM, or 0.5 mM, or 0.4 mM, or 0.3 mM, or 0.2 mM, or 0.1 mM, inclusive, and including all integers to the second decimal place and ranges there between. The method comprises administering to the individual a composition comprising the poorly water soluble drug and a compound having the following structure:

where each R is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, hydroxy, or ether group. Optionally, adjacent R groups form a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring or heterocyclic ring. Each

is independently a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring system or C₂ to C₂₀ heterocyclic ring system, where the ring system comprises one or more rings. At least one of the ring systems has at least one solubilizing group selected from sulfonic acid, sulfonate salt, phosphonic acid, phosphonate salt, and polyethylene glycol. Optionally, the ring system has a targeting group. The value of n is 1 to 5.

The disclosure also provides compositions comprising a compound of the present invention and a pharmaceutical agent. The pharmaceutical agent can be non-covalently complexed to the compound.

The present disclosure also provides a method for prophylaxis and/or therapy of a condition in an individual comprising administering to an individual in need of the prophylaxis and/or the therapy a composition comprising a compound of the present invention and pharmaceutical agent. Subsequent to the administration, the therapy and/or the prophylaxis of the condition in the individual occurs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1. Example of a Synthesis of Motor1

FIG. 2. Example of a Synthesis of Motor2

FIG. 3. Example of a Synthesis of Propargyl Host

FIG. 4. Example of a Synthesis of Ethanesulfonate Wall

FIG. 5. Example of a Synthesis of Butanesulfonate Wall

FIG. 6. Example of a Synthesis of 2,7-naphthalene sulfonate Wall

FIG. 7. Example of Syntheses of Ethanesulfonate Host and Butanesulfonate Host

FIG. 8. Example of a Synthesis of Napthalene Propanesulfonate Host

FIG. 9. Example of a Synthesis of Tetrabromo Host

FIG. 10. Example of a Synthesis of Tetrathiophenyl Host

FIG. 11. Example of a Synthesis of Tetraoctanethioether Host

FIG. 12. Example of Syntheses of PEG350, PEG750, PEG1900, PEG5000 Hosts

FIG. 13. Example of a Synthesis of Dibromo Dipropanesulfonate Host

FIG. 14. Example of a Synthesis of Tetraester Host

FIG. 15. Example of a Synthesis of Tetrahydroxy Host

FIG. 16. Example of a Synthesis of Tetrathioacetate Host

FIG. 17. Example of a Synthesis of Tetratriazole Host

FIG. 18. Examples of Compounds Used in Studies with Motor1 and Motor2 of Present Disclosure.

FIG. 19. Further Examples of Compounds Used in Studies with Motor1 and Motor2 of Present Disclosure

FIG. 20. A view of the x-ray crystal structure of Motor1 showing the anisotropic atomic displacement ellipsoids for the non-hydrogen atoms at the 30% probability level. Hydrogen atoms are displayed with an arbitrarily small radius.

FIG. 21. A view two symmetrically independent guest-host complexes in the x-ray crystal structure of Motor2 showing the anisotropic atomic displacement ellipsoids for the non-hydrogen atoms at the 30% probability level. Hydrogen atoms are displayed with an arbitrarily small radius.

FIG. 22. An example of a phase diagram of mixtures of Taxol (anticancer agent) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=2750-fold.

FIG. 23. An example of a phase diagram of Melphalan (anti-cancer agent) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=655-fold.

FIG. 24. An example of a phase diagram of Albendazole (various uses) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=226-fold.

FIG. 25. An example of a phase diagram of Tamoxifen (anti-cancer) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=23-fold.

FIG. 26. An example of a phase diagram of Cinnarizine (anti-histamine) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=354-fold.

FIG. 27. An example of a phase diagram of Clopidogrel (clot inhibitor) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=1220-fold.

FIG. 28. An example of a phase diagram of amiodarone (anti-arrythmic agent) and Motor1 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=267-fold.

FIG. 29. An example of a phase diagram of drug S-camptothecin solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=580-fold.

FIG. 30. An example of a phase diagram of drug albendazole solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=149-fold.

FIG. 31. An example of a phase diagram of drug tamoxifen solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=118-fold.

FIG. 32. An example of a phase diagram of drug amiodarone solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=340-fold.

FIG. 33. An example of a phase diagram of drug indomethacin solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=56-fold.

FIG. 34. An example of a phase diagram of drug tolfenamic acid solubilized with Motor2 in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH=7.4). Solubility enhancement=37-fold.

FIG. 35. An example of a ¹H NMR recorded for a) Motor1 and 2 eq. p-xylenediamine; b) Motor1; and c) p-xylenediamine in 20 mM Na₂DPO₄ (pD 7.4).

FIG. 36. An example of a ¹H NMR recorded for a) Motor1 and 2 eq. hexanediamine; b) Motor1; and c) hexanediamine in 20 mM Na₂DPO₄ (pD 7.4).

FIG. 37. An example of a ¹H NMR recorded for a) Motor1 and 2 eq. spermine; b) Motor1; and c) spermine in 20 mM Na₂DPO₄ (pD 7.4).

FIG. 38. Toxicology of Motor1 using the human kidney cell line HEK293. (A) MTS assay (B) AK (AK=adenylate kinase) assay. Untreated population (UT), Distilled water (D), Erythromycin (E), Erythromycin Estolate (EE).

FIG. 39. Toxicology of Motor1 (1) using the human liver cell line HepG2. (A) MTS (B) AK Untreated population (UT), Distilled water (D), Erythromycin (E), Erythromycin Estolate (EE).

FIG. 40. Percent hemolysis at 3 h caused by increasing concentrations of the compound Motor1. Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS), Distilled water (D).

FIG. 41. Motor1 is well tolerated in mice. Indicated amounts of Motor1 were injected into the tail vein of outbred Swiss Webster mice at day 0, 4 and 8. The weight of each mouse was monitored over time and there were 5 mice per experimental group.

FIG. 42. Motor1 facilitates killing of cancer cells by Paclitaxel. MCF-7 cancer cells were left untreated (UT), lysed with detergent, incubated with buffer, or Motor1 alone and treated with Taxol alone or Taxol plus 10 mM Motor1 or Taxol plus 15 mM. The MTS assay was used to determine the viability of cells after 48 h of treatment as expressed in units of optical density at 405 nm.

FIG. 43. Motor1 facilitates killing of cancer cells by Paclitaxel. SK-OV-3 cancer cells were left untreated (UT), lysed with detergent, incubated with buffer, or Motor1 alone and treated with Taxol alone or Taxol plus 10 mM Motor1 or Taxol plus 15 mM. The MTS assay was used to determine the viability of cells after 48 h of treatment as expressed in units of optical density at 405 nm.

FIG. 44. An example of a concentration (mM) of Motor1 in plasma versus time (min) plot for R17.

FIG. 45. An example of a concentration (mM) of Motor1 in plasma versus time (min) plot for R10.

FIG. 46. An example of a concentration (mM) of Motor1 in plasma versus time (min) plot for R11.

FIG. 47. An example of a concentration (mM) of Motor1 in plasma versus time (min) plot for R21.

FIG. 48. Varying concentrations of Motor2 incubated with THP-1 (A) and HEK 293 (B) cells over a 48 hr period resulted in high cell survival up to 5 mM. Two complementary assays were used to analyze toxicology an MTS and an AK release assay for the THP-1 cells. The AK release assay was conducted using 20 ul of supernatant from each sample studied using the MTS assay. The Vialight assay was used to assess cell viability in the HEK 293 cells. (UT=Untreated, Stx=Staurosporine, Triton=Trition-X-100). Unpaired t-test analysis was used with *P=0.01-0.05; **P=0.001-0.01; ***P, 0.001 for the statistical analysis of all figures presented.

FIG. 49. In vitro Bioactivity of Motor2. Hela (A) and MCF-7 (B) cells treated for 24 hrs with Tamoxifen complexed to Motor2 showed a significant increase in cell death as a result of the increase in Tamoxifen (0.27 mM) solubility once complexed to the container. Tamoxifen (0.01 mM) alone in phosphate buffer showed little to no cell death in comparison to the untreated samples as did the Motor2 (2.5 mM) alone treatments indicating the container alone did not result in cancer cell death. MTS analysis of the Hela (A), and MCF (B) showed high cell survival for M2 and Tamoxifen alone treatments and very low cell survival for the drug-container complex (green (designated by arrows here and in FIG. 41)=nuclei, red=actin, Stx=Staurosporine, Tamoxifen=T, Motor2=M2).

FIG. 50. MTS analysis of SK-OV-3 cancer cells after a 48 hr treatment with staurosporine (Stx), Motor2 at 2.5 mM (M2), Tamoxifen (0.01 mM), Motor2 complexed with 0.27 mM Tamoxifen (M+T).

FIG. 51. HeLa (A) and MCF-7 (B) cells treated with Paclitaxel complexed to Motor1 showed increased DNA fragmentation and cell death as a result of the significant increase in Paclitaxel (0.6 mM) solubility once complexed to the container. Paclitaxel (0.002 mM) alone in phosphate buffer showed little to no cell death in comparison to the untreated samples as did the Motor1 (5 mM) alone treatments indicating that Motor1 alone did not result in cancer cell death (green=nuclei, red=actin, Paclitaxel=P, Motor1=M1).

FIG. 52. ¹H NMR recorded for Host 1 (20 mM) and methoxy estradiol in phosphate.

FIG. 53. Structures of drug and excipient. (a) Motor1 (R=(CH₂)₃SO₃Na) is an acyclic cucurbit[n]uril-type compound that is highly soluble in aqueous solution (105 mM) and its flexible structure and unique binding properties make it an excellent excipient. (b) Albendazole (ABZ) is an anti-helminthic drug that is currently being repurposed as an anticancer agent due to its ability to target the microtubules of dividing cells.

FIG. 54. Increasing concentrations of Motor1 showed no mutagenicity in the Ames test. MOLTOX® Salmonella Mutagenicity Test kit was used according to vendor instructions to analyze Motor1 mutagenicity in four salmonella strains: TA1535 (a, b), TA1537 (c, d), TA98 (e, f), and TA100 (g. h) in the presence (b, d, f, h) or absence of rat liver S9 fraction (a, c, e, g). The dotted line signifies the number of revertant colonies in the solvent control group and the solid line indicates double this value which is the critical point at which a compound may be considered mutagenic. Each test value is an average of three replicates with corresponding standard deviation values. The number of revertant colonies induced by the positive controls are indicated in the insets of each figure.

FIG. 55. Motor1 does not inhibit the hERG channel. The hERG assay was conducted using transfected Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO)-hERG cells in an automated patch clamp study. Quinidine (closed squares) was used as a positive control. GraphPad Prism 6 was used to generate the best-fit, nonlinear line of regression (dotted line) to calculate its IC₅₀ of 1.66 μM. The IC₅₀ of Motor1 (closed circles) was higher than 25 μM. Values are an average of at least three replicates with corresponding standard deviation values (*p=0.01-0.05; **p=0.001-0.01; ***p<0.0001)

FIG. 56. The ovarian cancer cell line, SK-OV-3, is susceptible to Motor1•ABZ treatment. SK-OV-3 cells were seeded at 5×10⁵ cells/well overnight followed by 24 h treatment with increasing concentrations of Motor1•ABZ. The Roche Cell Death ELISA® was performed to quantify apoptotic cell death. Staurosporine (1 μM) was used as a positive control and the average of this control was set at a 100% apoptosis. The average (n=6) and standard deviation is shown. GraphPad Prism 6 was used to generate the best-fit line of regression (dotted line) to calculate the EC₅₀ value of 0.003 μM for ABZ efficacy.

FIG. 57. Pharmacokinetic evaluation following IV and IP administration of Motor1•ABZ indicated that the drug escapes the peritoneal cavity and reaches systemic circulation. Swiss Webster mice were randomly separated into groups of 5 and administered Motor1•ABZ intravenously. Blood was collected and plasma isolated from each mouse at indicated time points. Concentrations of ABZ (a), ABZSO (b) and ABZSO₂ (c) were determined by an HPLC assay and values following IP administration (closed squares) or IV dosing (closed circles) are shown. The average (n=5) and standard deviation is shown. GraphPad Prism 6 was used to conduct the student t-test (*p=0.01-0.05; **p=0.001-0.01; ***p<0.0001).

FIG. 58. Daily dosing of mice with Motor1 (681 mg/kg) or ABZ (up to 3.2 mg/kg) for 14 days did not result in significant weight loss. Seven female Swiss Webster mice per group were injected by weight, once daily through IP route with 681 mg/kg of Motor1 (closed circle) or 0.5 mg/kg (closed upward triangle), 1.4 mg/kg (closed downward triangle), 2.3 mg/kg (closed diamond) and 3.2 mg/kg (open upward triangle) of ABZ formulated with Motor1. An untreated group (closed squares) was also included. Twenty percent weight loss (solid line) indicates humane endpoint. The average and standard deviation of mouse weight per experimental group (n=7) is plotted.

FIG. 59. Motor1•ABZ treatment attenuates growth rate of SK-OV-3 tumors. Female, athymic mice with SK-OV-3 xenograft tumors maintained healthy weight (a, d), attenuated tumor growth rates (b, e) and increased survival (c, f) with once and twice daily dosing of Motor1•ABZ. (a-c) Mice (n=10) were dosed either once or twice daily with Motor1•ABZ (3.2 mg/kg) through the IP route. Treatment commenced when tumors were approximately 300 mm³, during the rapid tumor growth phase. (d-f) Mice (n=10) were dosed once daily with Motor1•ABZ (3.2 mg/kg). Treatment commenced when tumors were approximately 100 mm³, prior to the rapid growth phase. (a-f) Untreated (closed squares), Motor1 at 681 mg/kg (closed circles), Motor1•ABZ once daily (open upright triangle), Motor1•ABZ twice daily (open upside down triangle). GraphPad Prism 6 was used to calculate the slopes of rapid tumor growth phases in both studies (b, e). Statistical differences between the slopes as compared to the UT group were elucidated (*p=0.01-0.05; **p=0.001-0.01; ***p<0.0001). The log-rank test (c, f) was performed to calculate statistical significances as compared to the UT group.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present invention provides acyclic CB[n]-type compounds, compositions comprising the compounds, compositions comprising the compounds which further comprise pharmaceutical agents, methods of making the compounds and compositions comprising them, and uses of the compounds and compositions disclosed herein. The present invention is based at least in part on the surprising aqueous solubility of the acyclic CB[n]-type compounds described herein relative to previously available compounds. For example, the compounds exhibit greater than or equal to 100 mM solubility in aqueous solvents (e.g., water). In embodiments, the poorly soluble drug has a solubility in water or in an aqueous buffer of less than 1.0 mM. or 0.9 mM, or 0.8 mM, or 0.7 mM, or 0.6 mM, or 0.5 mM, or 0.4 mM, or 0.3 mM, or 0.2 mM, or 0.1 mM, inclusive, and including all integers to the second decimal place and ranges there between.

The acyclic CB[n]-type compounds of the present invention can be used for a variety of purposes, which include but are not necessarily limited to use as containers to solubilize chemical compounds. Improvement of solubility for compounds in, for example, aqueous solutions, is desirable for studying drug compounds and for improvement of drug bioavailability for therapeutic and/or prophylactic purposes. For example, the compounds of the present invention can be used to enhance the stability of drugs in both water and the solid state (e.g. decrease degradation/increase shelf life).

In certain embodiments, the compounds can be used to rescue promising drug candidates which have undesirable solubility and bioavailablity, and thus alleviate the attrition in the drug development process for anti-cancer agents and agents intended to treat other diseases. Also, the containers can be used for targeted delivery of drugs to particular cell types, such as tumor cells, to increase the efficiency of existing drugs and/or reduce their toxic side effects.

In one embodiment, the present invention provides a composition comprising at least one compound of the invention. Compositions comprising at least one compound of the invention include but are not limited to pharmaceutical preparations.

In various embodiments, the invention provides a composition comprising a compound of the invention, wherein the composition further comprises a pharmaceutical agent. Such compositions can also be provided as pharmaceutical preparations.

It is important to emphasize that the pharmaceutical agent that can be included in compositions which comprise a compound of the invention is not particularly limited. In connection with this, in certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical agent that is mixed with a compound of the invention is a pharmaceutical agent that is poorly water soluble.

Solubility of any particular pharmaceutical agent can be determined if desired using any of a variety techniques that are well known to those skilled in the art. Solubility can be ascertained if desired at any pH, such as a physiological pH, and/or at any desired temperature. Suitable temperatures for use in the invention include but are not necessarily limited to from 4° C. to 70° C., inclusive, and including all degree integers there between.

In connection with poorly soluble pharmaceutical agents suitable for use in the invention, in one aspect, such agents are considered to be those which have a solubility of less than 100 μM in water or an aqueous buffer.

In another embodiment, poorly soluble pharmaceutical agents are considered to include compounds which are Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class 2 or class 4 drugs. The BCS is well known to those skilled in the art and is based on the aqueous solubility of drugs reported in readily available reference literature, and for drugs that are administered orally it includes a correlation of human intestinal membrane permeability. (See, for example, Takagi et al., (2006) Molecular Pharmaceutics, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp 631-643.) The skilled artisan will therefore readily be able to recognize a drug as a member of BCS class 2 or class 4 from published literature, or can test a drug with an unknown BCS or other solubility value to determine whether it has properties consistent with either of those classifications, or for otherwise being suitable for use in the present invention. In one embodiment, solubility can be determined according to the parameters set forth in this matrix:

Parts of solvent required Solubility Solubility for 1 part of solute Range (mg/mL) very soluble    <1 ≧1000 freely soluble from 1 to 10 100-1000 Soluble from 10 to 30 33-100 sparingly soluble from 30 to 100 10-33  slightly soluble from 100 to 1000 1-10 very slightly soluble from 1000 to 10000 0.1-1   practically insoluble ≧10000    <0.1

Thus, for the purposes of the present invention, a poorly soluble pharmaceutical agent that can be mixed with a compound of the invention can be any pharmaceutical agent that falls into the categories sparingly soluble, slightly soluble, very slightly soluble, and practically insoluble as set forth in the above matrix.

Again, it should be emphasized that other than being characterized as having low solubility in aqueous solution, the pharmaceutical agent with which a compound of the invention can be mixed is not limited. In this regard, we demonstrate at least one utility of the invention by mixing a wide variety of distinct pharmaceutical agents with compounds of the invention and show that, as a consequence of mixing the compounds with the pharmaceutical agents, solubility of the agents is increased. In particular, we demonstrate this aspect of the invention by preparing compositions comprising a compound of the invention and the following illustrative types of pharmaceutical agents: a mitotic inhibitor (taxol, a mitotic inhibitor used in cancer chemotherapy); a nitrogen mustard alkylating agent (Melphalan, trade name Alkeran used for chemotherapy); a benzimidazole (Albendazole, marketed as Albenza, Eskazole, Zentel and Andazol, for treatment of a variety of worm infestations); an antagonist of the estrogen receptor in breast tissue which is used to treat breast cancers (Tamoxifen, which is an estrogen receptor antagonist when metabolized to its active form of hydroxytamoxifen); an antihistamine (Cinnarizine, marketed as Stugeron and Stunarone for control of symptoms of motion sickness); a thienopyridine class antiplatelet agent (Clopidogrel, marketed as Plavix for inhibiting blood clots in coronary artery disease and for other conditions); and an antiarrhythmic agent (Amiodarone used for treatment of tachyarrhythmias). Other pharmaceutical agents not expressly listed here are also included within the scope of the invention. Some examples of such agents include but are not limited to adjuvants for use in enhancing immunological responses, analgesic agents, and detectably labeled agents used for diagnostic imaging. Thus, it will be recognized by those skilled in the art that we have demonstrated compounds of the invention can be mixed with and improve solubility of pharmaceutical agents that are members of vastly different classes of compounds which are characterized by disparate chemical structures and biological activities. The invention accordingly provides heretofore unprecedented capability for being utilized in a broad array of therapeutic and/or prophylactic treatment modalities. Further, we demonstrate that the novel compounds provided by the invention are non-toxic to human cells. Further still, we demonstrate that by combining therapeutic agents, such as anti-cancer agents, with compounds of the invention, the therapeutic activity of the agents is increased, and in some cases a synergistic (greater than additive) increase in activity is provided.

Without intending to be constrained by theory, it is considered that one aspect of the invention provides for formation of a guest-host complex comprising a non-covalently associated complex of a compound of the invention and a pharmaceutical agent. The guest-host complex can therefore be considered to be an organized chemical entity resulting from the association of two or more components of the pharmaceutical agent (guest) and the host held together by non-covalent intermolecular forces.

Compositions comprising a compound of the invention mixed with pharmaceutical agents, which may form guest-host complexes, can be prepared at any point prior to use of the composition using any suitable technique. The compound-pharmaceutical agent complex can be formed, for example, by mixing the compound and the pharmaceutical agent in a suitable solvent. It is desirable that the compound and pharmaceutical agent be soluble in the solvent such that the compound and agent form a non-covalent complex. Any suitable solvent can be used. In certain embodiments, the solvent is an aqueous solution, which includes but is not necessarily limited to water. Non-aqueous solvents could also be used (e.g. MeOH, EtOH, or organic solvents), and then removed and the compositions if desired can be re-dissolved in an aqeuous solution for administration. In general, a solution of a compound of the invention can be provided at a known concentration, examples of which include but are not limited to from 0.1 to 90 mM, inclusive and including all integers to the tenth decimal place there between, and add to that a drug for which enhanced solubility is desired. The drug can be provided, for example, in a solid form. The mixture can be shaken or stirred for a period of time and the amount of drug that is dissolved is monitored. If all added drug goes into solution, more drug can be added until some detectable portion of it remains a solid. The soluble compound-drug complex can then be isolated and analyzed by any suitable technique, such by recovering a centrifuged portion and analyzing it by NMR, to determine the concentration of drug in solution. As evidenced by the description and figures disclosed herein, in various embodiments, a compound of the invention can be provided in a composition comprising the drug at a ratio of at least 1 to 1 as pertains to the compound-drug stoichiometry.

Compositions comprising a compound of the invention and a pharmaceutical agent can be prepared at a patient's bedside, or by a pharmaceutical manufacture. In the latter case, the compositions can be provided in any suitable container, such as a sealed sterile vial or ampoule, and may be further packaged to include instruction documents for use by a pharmacist, physician or other health care provider. The compositions can be provided as a liquid, or as a lyophilized or powder form that can be reconstituted if necessary when ready for use. In particular, the compositions can be provided in combination with any suitable delivery form or vehicle, examples of which include but are not limited to liquids, caplets, capsules, tablets, inhalants or aerosol, etc. The delivery devices may comprise components that facilitate release of the pharmaceutical agents over certain time periods and/or intervals, and can include compositions that enhance delivery of the pharmaceuticals, such as nanoparticle, microsphere or liposome formualtions, a vareity of which are known in the art and are commercially avaiabale. Further, each composition described herein can comprise one or more pharmaceutical agents.

The compositions described herein can be with one or more standard pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Some examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can be found in: Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (2005) 21st Edition, Philadelphia, Pa. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Various methods known to those skilled in the art can be used to introduce the compositions of the invention to an individual. These methods include but are not limited to intravenous, intramuscular, intracranial, intrathecal, intradermal, subcutaneous, and oral routes. The dose of the composition comprising a compound of the invention and a pharmaceutical agent will necessarily be dependent upon the needs of the individual to whom the composition of the invention is to be administered. These factors include but are not necessarily limited to the weight, age, sex, medical history, and nature and stage of the disease for which a therapeutic or prophylactic effect is desired. The compositions can be used in conjunction with any other conventional treatment modality designed to improve the disorder for which a desired therapeutic or prophylactic effect is intended, non limiting examples of which include surgical interventions and radiation therapies. The compositions can be administered once, or over a series of administrations at various intervals determined using ordinary skill in the art, and given the benefit of the present disclosure.

Compositions of the invention can comprise more than one pharmaceutical agent. Likewise, the compositions can comprise distinct host guest complexes. For example, a first composition comprising a compound of the invention and a first phamaceutical agent can be separately prepared from a composition which comprises the same compound of the invention and a second pharmaceutical agent, and such preparations can be mixed to provide a two-pronged (or more) approach to acheiving the desired prophylaxis or therapy in an individual. Further, compositions of the invention can be prepared using mixed preparations of any of the compounds disclosed herein.

Compositions of the invention can be administered to any human or non-human animal in need of therapy or prophylaxis for one or more conditions for which the pharmaceutical agent is intended to provide a prophylactic of therapeutic benefit. Thus, the individual can be diagnosed with, suspected of having, or be at risk for developing any of a variety of conditions for which a reduction in severity would be desirable. Non-limiting examples of such conditions include cancer, including solid tumors and blood cancers (leukemia, lymphoma and myeloma). Specific examples of cancers include but are not limited to fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma, liposarcoma, chondrosarcoma, osteogenic sarcoma, chordoma, angiosarcoma, endotheliosarcoma, lymphangiosarcoma, pseudomyxoma peritonei, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, synovioma, mesothelioma, Ewing's tumor, leiomyosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, colon carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, head and neck cancer, sweat gland carcinoma, sebaceous gland carcinoma, papillary carcinoma, papillary adenocarcinomas, cystadenocarcinoma, medullary carcinoma, bronchogenic carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, hepatoma, bile duct carcinoma, choriocarcinoma, seminoma, embryonal carcinoma, Wilns' tumor, cervical cancer, testicular tumor, lung carcinoma, small cell lung carcinoma, bladder carcinoma, epithelial carcinoma, glioma, astrocytoma, medulloblastoma, craniopharyngioma, ependymoma, pinealoma, hemangioblastoma, acoustic neuroma, oliodendroglioma, meningioma, melanoma, neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, thymoma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, and heavy chain disease.

In addition to various malignancies, the invention is also suitable for providing a benefit for cardiovascular related disorders, examples of which include but are not limited to angina, arrhythmia, atherosclerosis, cardiomyopaathy, congestive heart failure, coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, endocarditis, coronary thrombosis, myocardial infarction, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia/hyperlipidemia, mitral valve prolapse, peripheral artery disease, stroke, thrombosis, embolism, and other forms of ischemic damage.

In addition, the invention can be used in connection with treating a variety of infectious diseases. In this regard, in one embodiment, we demonstrate increased solubility of the anti-parasite drug Albendazole. Accordingly, it is expected that a variety of agents used to treat and/or inhibit infectious diseases caused by, for example, bacterial, protozoal, helminthic, fungal or viral origins could be aided by the invention.

The present disclosure provides pharmacokinetic evaluations following IV and IP administration of Motor1 and Albendazole (ABZ), which demonstrate that this drug, when solubilized using Motor1 (M1) escapes the peritoneal cavity and reaches systemic circulation. Further, we show that increasing concentrations of Motor1 does not result in mutagenicity in the well-known Ames test. Further still, the present disclosure demonstrates that Motor1 does not inhibit the hERG channel, which is a standard safety assessment test conducted during drug development. Further, in vivo anti-cancer effects using various Motor1-ABZ preparations and administration routes are demonstrated to attenuate growth rate of SK-OV-3 (ovarian cancer cells) tumors and extend survival of mice in which the tumors are formed.

FIG. 57. Swiss Webster mice were randomly separated into groups of 5 and administered Motor1•ABZ intravenously. Blood was collected and plasma isolated from each mouse at indicated time points. Concentrations of ABZ (a), ABZSO (b) and ABZSO₂ (c) were determined by an HPLC assay and values following IP administration (closed squares) or IV dosing (closed circles) are shown. The average (n=5) and standard deviation is shown. GraphPad Prism 6 was used to conduct the student t-test (*p=0.01-0.05; **p=0.001-0.01; ***p<0.0001).

FIG. 58. Daily dosing of mice with Motor1 (681 mg/kg) or ABZ (up to 3.2 mg/kg) for 14 days did not result in significant weight loss. Seven female Swiss Webster mice per group were injected by weight, once daily through IP route with 681 mg/kg of Motor1 (closed circle) or 0.5 mg/kg (closed upward triangle), 1.4 mg/kg (closed downward triangle), 2.3 mg/kg (closed diamond) and 3.2 mg/kg (open upward triangle) of ABZ formulated with Motor1. An untreated group (closed squares) was also included. Twenty percent weight loss (solid line) indicates humane endpoint. The average and standard deviation of mouse weight per experimental group (n=7) is plotted.

Additionally, it is demonstrated that the compounds of this disclosure can solubilize methoxy estradiol.

As used herein, “alkyl group” refers to branched or unbranched hydrocarbons. Examples of such alkyl groups include methyl groups, ethyl groups, butyl groups, nonyl groups, neopentyl groups, and the like. For example, the alkyl group can be a C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween.

As used herein, “alkyl group” refers to branched or unbranched hydrocarbons. Examples of such alkyl groups include methyl groups, ethyl groups, butyl groups, nonyl groups, neopentyl groups, and the like. For example, the alkyl group can be a C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween.

As used herein, “carbocyclic group” refers to a cyclic compound having a ring or multiple rings in which all of the atoms forming the ring(s) are carbon atoms. The rings of the carbocyclic group can be aromatic or nonaromatic, and include compounds that are saturated and partially unsaturated, and fully unsaturated. Examples of such groups include benzene, naphthalene, 1,2-dihydronaphthalene, cyclohexane, cyclopentene, and the like. For example, the carbocyclic group can be a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween.

As used herein, “heterocyclic group” refers to a cyclic compound having a ring or multiple rings where at least one of the atoms forming the ring(s) is a heteroatom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.). The rings of the heterocyclic group can be aromatic or nonaromatic, and include compounds that are saturated, partially unsaturated, and fully unsaturated. Examples of such groups include imidazolidin-2-one, pyridine, quinoline, decahydroquinoline, tetrahydrofuran, pyrrolidine, pyrrolidone, and the like. For example, the heterocyclic group can be a C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween.

As used herein, “carbocyclic ring system” refers to a cyclic compound having a ring or multiple rings in which all of the atoms forming the ring(s) are carbon atoms. Examples of such groups include benzene, naphthalene, 1,2-dihydronaphthalene, cyclohexane, cyclopentene, and the like. The rings of the carbocyclic ring system or heterocyclic ring system can be aromatic or nonaromatic, and include compounds that are saturated, partially unsaturated, and fully unsaturated. For example, the carbocyclic ring system can be a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween. In another example, the carbocyclic ring system can be a phenyl group or naphthyl group. The phenyl group or naphthyl group is attached to the compound via adjacent carbons of the phenyl group or naphthyl group.

As used herein, “heterocyclic ring system” refers to a cyclic compound having a ring or multiple rings in which at least one of the atoms forming the ring(s) is a heteroatom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.). The rings of the carbocyclic ring system or heterocyclic ring system can be aromatic or nonaromatic, and include compounds that are saturated, and fully unsaturated. Examples of the heterocyclic ring system include imidazolidin-2-one, pyridine, quinoline, decahydroquinoline, tetrahydrofuran, pyrrolidine, pyrrolidone, and the like. For example, the heterocyclic ring system can be a C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, including all integer numbers of carbons and ranges of numbers of carbons therebetween.

Any of these groups and/or rings may each be substituted with alkyl groups and other substituents such as, for example, nitro, cyano, keto, carboxy, alkoxy, hydroxyl, amine, amide, halide (e.g., bromide, chloride, fluoride, and iodide), and alkoxy groups. For example, the alkyl groups or aryl groups may be further substituted. For example, the alkyl group can be halide substituted (e.g., a 2-chloroethyl group). As another example, a carbocyclic group can be cyano substituted (e.g., 3-cyano naphthalene).

In an aspect, the present invention provides acyclic CB[n]-type compounds having the following structure:

Each R is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, hydroxyl, or ether group. The carboxylic acid, ester, amide, and ether groups can have from 1 to 20 carbons, including all integer values and ranges therebetween. Optionally, adjacent R groups form a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring or heterocyclic ring, where the carbocyclic ring is a ring in which all of the atoms forming the ring(s) are carbon atoms and the heterocyclic ring is a ring where at least one of the atoms forming the ring(s) is a heteroatom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.). These rings may each be substituted with alkyl groups and other substituents such as, for example, nitro, cyano, keto, carboxy, alkoxy, hydroxyl, amine, amide, halide (e.g., bromide, chloride, fluoride, and iodide), and alkoxy groups.

Each

is independently a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring system or C₂ to C₂₀ heterocyclic ring system. At least one

of the compound has at least one solubilizing group. In an embodiment, both

s of the compound have at least one solubilizing group. In an embodiment, one

of the compound has at least one solubilizing group. In various embodiments, the ring system has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 solubilizing groups. Optionally, the ring system has a targeting group. The value of n is 1 to 5, including all integer values therebetween. In an embodiment, the

groups are the same.

In various embodiments, the compound is a salt, a partial salt, a hydrate, a polymorph, a stereoisomer or a mixture thereof. The compounds can have stereoisomers. For example, the compound can be present as a racemic mixture, a single enantiomer, a single diastereomer, mixture of enantiomers, or mixture of diastereomers.

Without intending to be bound by any particular theory, it is considered that the solubilizing group (or groups) increase (or impart) solubility of compounds in water or aqueous solvent systems. The solubilizing group can be a functional group that can be deprotonated over a broad pH range. The solubilizing group can have a cationic (e.g., ammonium and sulfonium groups), anionic (e.g., sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate, and phosphonate groups) or neutral group (e.g., sulfonic acids, phosphonic acids, polyethylene glycol (PEG) ethers (including PEG ether oligomers), crown ethers, and cyclam groups). Another example of a neutral solubilizing group is a zwitterionic group (e.g., a group with both an ammonium group and a sulfonate group), where both ionic groups are covalently bonded to the compound. It is desirable that cationic solubilizing groups not interact with cavity of the compound. The compound can have mixtures of solubilizing groups. In an embodiment, the solubilizing group selected from sulfonic acid, sulfonate salt, phosphonic acid, phosphonate salt, and polyethylene glycol. The solubilizing group can be connected to the linking group though a heteroatom, such as oxygen or sulfur. For example, the PEG group can be connected to the compound through a sulfur atom forming a thioether moiety. For example, the polyethylene glycol group can have a molecular weight of from 107 to 100,000, including all integer values and ranges therebetween.

In one embodiment, the solubilizing group or groups are not carboxylic acids or carboxylic acid salts. In one embodiment, at least one of the solubilizing groups is not a carboxylic acid or carboxylic acid salt.

The targeting group is a moiety that interacts with, for example, a cell. A targeting group (TG) is a moiety that targets, for example, tumor cells by either passive or active targeting by methods known in the art. Examples of targeting groups include dendrons, dendrimers, PEG groups, peptides, polypeptides, folates, amidines, antibodies, proteins, steroids, mono or oligosaccharides, and the like.

In an embodiment, each

of the compound is independently a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring system having one of the following structures:

At each occurrence of

R¹ to R¹⁶ is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, halo group, hydroxyl group, nitro group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, ether group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, or C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group. For example, the carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, and ether groups can have from 1 to 20 carbons, including all integer values and ranges therebetween. At least one of R¹ to R¹⁶ in the compound has the following structure:

LG is a linking group and X is the solubilizing group. Optionally, one or more adjacent R¹ to R¹⁶ groups are connected forming a carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring, and the ring can be substituted or unsubstituted.

As used herein, “adjacent” refers to groups attached through 2 or 3 carbons as depicted by, for example,

in the structures:

It is contemplated that groups can be attached through any two adjacent carbons.

A linking group (LG) is a group that connects

with a solubilizing group (X) or a targeting group (TG). The linking group can be, for example, an alkoxy moiety or an alkyl moiety. The linking group can have independently at each occurrence a thioether linkage, ether linkage, amino linkage, amide linkage, ester linkage, triazole ring linkage, or a combination thereof. For example, these linkages can join the linking group and solubilizing group or targeting group. In an embodiment, the linking group, LG, is a 1-substituted triazole.

In an embodiment,

has the following structure:

The value of each i is independently 1 to 20, including all integer values therebetween.

In an embodiment, at least one of the R¹ to R¹⁶ groups in the compound has the following structure:

LG is a linking group and TG is a targeting group.

In an embodiment, the compound has one of the following structures:

wherein Z is PEG group. In an embodiment, the PEG group has a molecular weight of 200 to 10,000, including all integers and ranges therebetween. In an embodiment, the PEG group has a molecular weight of 350 (PEG350), 750 (PEG750), 1900 (PEG1900), or 5000 (PEG5000).

Compounds having the structures of formulae I-IV can be prepared, for example, by the synthetic methodology described in Example 1-2. In this embodiment, R, R², R³, R⁶, R⁷, R⁸ and R⁹ are as defined herein.

In various embodiments, the compounds have the following structures:

(referred to herein as Motor1 or Motor1),

(referred to herein as Motor2 or Motor2),

where j is, for example, 1 to 2250, including all integer values and ranges therebetween, and R in this example is hydrogen or an alkyl group,

where A⁺ can be H⁺, Na⁺, K+, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, H₄N⁺, Et₃NH⁺, Me₄N⁺, (HOCH₂CH₂)₃NH⁺, or a cationic form of ethylenediamine, piperazine, and trishydroxymethyl aminomethane (TRIS).

The compound-pharmaceutical agent complex can be formed, for example, by mixing the compound and the pharmaceutical agent in a suitable solvent. It is desirable that the compound and pharmaceutical agent be soluble in the solvent such that the compound and agent form a non-covalent complex.

An example of a general method for the preparation of the compounds of the present invention is provided in the following. The method comprises the following steps:

1) Providing a compound (1) of the following structure:

where m is from 0 to 4,

2) Forming a reaction mixture comprising compound (1), an acid (e.g., MeSO₃H, HCl, CF₃CO₂H, H₂SO₄, or TsOH) and a compound (2) having the following structure:

where each R is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, hydroxyl group, or ether group. Optionally, adjacent R groups form a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring or heterocyclic ring, where the carbocyclic ring is a ring in which all of the atoms forming the ring(s) are carbon atoms and the heterocyclic ring is a ring where at least one of the atoms forming the ring(s) is a heteroatom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, etc.). These rings may each be substituted with alkyl groups and other substituents such as, for example, nitro, cyano, keto, carboxy, alkoxy, hydroxyl, amine, amide, halide (e.g., bromide, chloride, fluoride, and iodide), and alkoxy groups. Y is oxygen or nitrogen substituted with a C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group. (2) is added to the reaction mixture such that a compound (3), of the following structure is formed:

3) Contacting said compound (3) with TFA and

which can be a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring system or C₂ to C₂₀ heterocyclic ring system, where the ring system comprises one or more rings. The ring system, optionally, has at least one solubilizing group. Optionally, the ring system has a targeting group. Compound (3), a solvent, and

are combined such that the following structure is formed:

In an embodiment,

can be derivatized with the solubilizing group and/or targeting group after step 3). For example, one of the building block compounds can be derivatized to form a compound of the present invention. For example, an alkyl bromide component of one of the building block compounds can be reacted with a PEGylated thiol to make a compound with a PEG solubilizing group.

Examples of

include but are not limited to:

where each R¹ to R¹⁶ is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, halo group, hydroxyl group, nitro group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, ether group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, or C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group. For example, the carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, and ether groups can have from 1 to 20 carbons, including all integer values and ranges therebetween. At least one of the R¹ to R¹⁶ groups in the structure has the following structure:

where LG is the linking group and wherein X is the solubilizing group. In an embodiment, LG can have the formula:

where each i is 1 to 20. Optionally one or more adjacent R¹ to R¹⁶ groups are connected forming a carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring, and the ring can be substituted or unsubstituted. In an embodiment, at least one of the R¹ to R¹⁶ groups in the structure has the following structure:

where LG is a linking group and wherein TG is the targeting group.

It is desirable for the

group to be reactive in electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. Thus, in an embodiment, the

group is an aromatic ring having at least one alkyl ether moiety.

The determination of suitable reaction conditions (e.g., solvent, reaction time and reaction temperature) is within the purview of one having skill in the art. A wide range of solvent can be used. Examples of suitable solvents include TFA, HCl, H₂SO₄, TsOH, HBr, CH₃SO₃H and mixtures thereof. For example, it may be desirable to add acetic anhydride as a co-solvent. Reaction time can vary. Generally, a reaction time of 3 hours is sufficient to provide a desired extent of reaction. A wide range of reaction temperatures can be used. For example, reaction temperatures of 25° C. to 100° C. can be used.

In an embodiment, the compounds can be made from building block compounds (i.e., intermediates). The building block compounds have functional groups (e.g., halogen (e.g., fluoro, chloro, bromo, or iodo), hydroxy, carboxylic acid, alkenyl, alkynyl, nitro, cyano, keto, amino, amido, thioether, thioate and triazole groups) that can be reacted to covalently attach solubilizing groups or targeting groups. Examples of building block compounds include:

For example, the tetra propargyl compound can be reacted with azides to form for example a triazole compound.

The following examples are presented to illustrate the present invention. They are not intended to limiting in any manner.

Example 1 General Experimental

Starting materials were purchased from commercial suppliers and were used without further purification or were prepared by literature procedures. Melting points were measured on a Meltemp apparatus in open capillary tubes and are uncorrected. IR spectra were recorded on a JASCO FT/IR 4100 spectrometer and are reported in cm⁻¹. NMR spectra were measured on Bruker DRX-400 instrument operating at 400 MHz for ¹H and 100 MHz for ¹³C. Mass spectrometry was performed using a JEOL AccuTOF electrospray instrument (ESI). UV-Vis absorbance was measured on Varian Cary 100 UV spectrophotometer.

Synthetic Procedures and Characterization.

Glycoluril Dimer. A mixture of glycoluril (500 g, 3.51 mol) and paraformaldehyde (105 g, 3.51 mol) in HCl (8 M, 70 mL) was heated at 50° C. for 48 h. The reaction mixture was cooled and filtered. The solid was washed with water (500 mL) and then recrystallized with TFA (1.5 L) to yield Glycoluril Dimer as a white solid (334 g, 62%).

Dimethyl Glycoluril.

Into a solution of urea (1140 g, 19.0 mol) in HCl (0.3 M, 2.8 L), 2,3-butanedione (500 g, 5.8 mol) was added. The solution was stirred at RT for 12 h. The reaction mixture was filtered and the solid was washed with water (2.0 L×2) and then ethanol (2.0 L) to yield Dimethyl glycoluril as a white solid (749 g, 76%).

Dimethyl Glycoluril Bis(Cyclic Ether).

A mixture of Dimethyl glycoluril (749 g, 4.4 mol) and paraformaldehyde (650 g, 21.7 mol) in HCl (9 M, 3.8 L) was stirred for 24 h. Water (14.0 L) was added and the mixture was stirred for an additional 12 h. The mixture was then filtered and washed with water (2 L) and ethanol (2 L) to yield Dimethyl glycoluril bis(cyclic ether) as a white solid (719 g, 65%).

Methyl Tetramer.

(FIG. 1) Into a solution of Glycoluril Dimer (84 g, 0.27 mol) in anhydrous MeSO₃H (600 mL), Dimethyl glycoluril bis(cyclic ether) (304 g, 1.20 mol) was added. The mixture was stirred and heated at 50° C. for 3 h. The reaction mixture was poured into water (6.0 L). After filtration, the crude solid was dried in high vacuum. The crude solid was recrystallized from TFA (350 mL) and water (1.4 L) to yield Methyl tetramer as a white solid (76 g, 36%).

Propanesulfonate Wall.

Into a solution of hydroquinone (100 g, 0.91 mol) in aqueous NaOH solution (2.5 M, 1.4 L), a solution of propanesultone (275 g, 2.25 mol) in 1,4-dioxane (1.8 L) was added. The mixture was stirred at RT for 12 h. The mixture was filtered. The solid was washed with acetone (2 L×2) to yield 3,3′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(propane-1-sulfonic acid) as white solid (294 g, 81%).

Motor1. (FIG. 1)

Into a solution of methyl tetramer (76 g, 97 mmol) in TFA (700 mL), propanesulfonate wall (154 g, 387 mmol) was added. The mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 3 h. The solvent was removed by rotary evaporation and the solid was dried in high vacuum. The solid was washed with the mixture of water and acetone (1:2, v/v, 1.5 L×2). The solid was dissolved in water (500 mL) and adjusted to pH=7 by adding 1 M aqueous NaOH. The solvent was removed with rotary evaporation and then the solid was further dried under high vacuum to yield Motor1 as a white solid (60 g, 40%). M.p.>320° C. (decomposed). IR (ATR, cm-1): 3000 w, 1711 s, 1456 s, 1313 m, 1225 s, 1178 s, 1076 s, 972 m, 920 m, 822 m, 797 s, 756 m, 665 m. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.72 (s, 4H), 5.50 (d, J=15.2, 2H), 5.38 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 5.31 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.25 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 5.19 (d, J=16.2, 4H), 4.10 (d, J=11.1, 4H), 4.06 (d, J=11.7, 4H), 3.97 (d, J=15.4, 2H), 3.91 (m, 4H), 3.79 (m, 4H), 2.98 (m, 8H), 2.06 (m, 8H), 1.64 (m, 6H), 1.61 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 157.5, 157.3, 150.8, 128.3, 115.3, 79.7, 78.6, 72.3, 72.1, 69.2, 53.8, 49.4, 49.0, 35.9, 25.5, 17.1, 16.0. MS (ESI): m/z 1473.3232 ([M−H]⁻), calculated 1473.3216.

1,4-Naphthalene Propanesulfonate Wall (FIG. 2).

Into a solution of 1,4-dihydroxynaphathelene (2.0 g, 12.5 mmol) in NaOH (10 wt %, 16 mL), a solution of propanesultone (3.8 g, 31.2 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (24 mL) was added. This solution was stirred at RT for 12 h. After filtration, the solid was dissolved in H₂O (10 mL) and then precipitated with MeCN (60 mL) to yield a blue solid (1.5 g, 3.3 mmol, 27%). M.p.>227° C. (dec.). IR (ATR, cm⁻¹): 2988 w, 2902 w, 1597 w, 1462 w, 1377 w, 1273 m, 1240 m, 1222 m, 1183 s, 1155 m, 1100 m, 946 s, 800 w, 765 m, 613 m. ¹H NMR (600 MHz, D2O): 8.01 (m, 2H), 7.43 (m, 2H), 6.63 (s, 2H), 4.02 (t, 4H), 3.02 (t, 4H), 2.16 (m, 4H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 148.0, 126.4, 125.9, 121.4, 106.3, 67.5, 48.1, 24.2. High-Res MS (ESI): m/z 427.0528 ([M+Na]⁺), calculated 427.0497.

Motor2 (FIG. 2).

To a solution of methyl tetramer (2.67 g, 3.42 mmol) in TFA (25 mL), 1,4-Naphthalene propanesulfonate wall (6.13 g, 13.7 mmol) was added. This solution was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 3 h. The solvent was removed with rotary evaporation and the solid was dried in high vacuum. The crude mixture was refluxed in EtOH (60 mL) overnight and then filtered. The solid was dissolved in hot water (20 mL). The solution was adjusted to pH=7 with 1 M NaOH. The solution was cooled down to RT and filtered to yield Motor2 as a white solid (1.7 g, 30%). M.p.>196° C. (decomposed). IR (ATR, cm⁻¹): 3433 w, 1717 s, 1471 s, 1425 m, 1383 m, 1349 m, 1317 m, 1179 s, 1082 s, 1036 s, 922 w, 881 w, 827 m, 801 s, 757 m, 728 m, 676 m. ¹H NMR (600 MHz, D₂O): 7.72 (m, 4H), 7.27 (m, 4H), 5.48 (d, J=15.3, 2H), 5.42 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 5.31 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 5.25 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 5.12 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.30 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.12 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 4.00 (m, 4H), 3.96 (d, J=15.3, 2H), 3.74 (m, 4H), 3.08 (m, 8H), 2.13 (m, 8H), 1.66 (s, 6H), 1.61 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 156.7, 156.3, 148.2, 127.7, 127.0, 126.1, 122.3, 78.6, 77.6, 74.1, 71.5, 71.2, 52.9, 48.5, 36.5, 25.1, 16.4, 15.2. High-Res MS (ESI): m/z 777.1986 ([M+2H]²⁺), calculated 777.1972.

Example 2 Propargyl Host (FIG. 3)

Methyl tetramer (1.70 g, 2.18 mol) in TFA (5 mL), 1,4-bis(prop-2-yn-1-yloxy)benzene (1.62 g, 8.71 mmol) was added. The solution was heated at 50° C. for 4 h. The solvent was removed with rotary evaporation. The crude product was further dried on high vacuum and then washed with water (50 mL). The solid was washed with acetone (50 mL×2) and filtered. Then this solid was dissolved in concentrated HCl (50 mL) and then precipitated by adding water (100 mL) to yield a white solid (1.1 g, 1.0 mmol, 45%). M.P.>260° C. (decomposed). IR (ATR, cm⁻¹): 2939 w, 1721 m, 1463 m, 1380 m, 1314 w, 1231 m, 1211 m, 1186 m, 1090 m, 941 s, 848 w, 796 m, 758 m, 616 m. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.92 (s, 4H), 5.54 (d, J=14.9, 2H), 5.45 (d, J=15.0, 4H), 5.34 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.23 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.15 (d, J=15.8, 4H), 4.79 (d, J=15.0, 4H), 4.72 (d, J=15.0, 4H), 4.10 (d, J=15.8, 4H), 4.03 (d, J=15.0, 4H), 4.03 (d, J=14.9, 2H), 3.52 (s, 4H), 1.65 (s, 6H), 1.61 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, DMSO-d⁶): δ 156.6, 155.2, 150.7, 129.6, 115.6, 81.3, 79.1, 78.5, 77.5, 71.9, 71.5, 59.0, 54.2, 49.4, 35.6, 18.0, 16.9. HR-MS (ESI): m/z 1117.4007 ([M+H]⁺), calculated 1117.4029.

Ethanesulfonate Wall (FIG. 4).

1,4-bis(2-bromoethoxy)benzene (2.00 g, 6.13 mmol) and sodium sulfite (3.10 g, 24.5 mmol) were mixed and dissolved in DMF (20 mL). The mixture was stirred at 100° C. under N₂ for 12 h and then water (20 mL) was added. The mixture was allowed to cool to RT and the product precipitated as white crystals. The solid was collected by filtration and then purified by recrystallization from water. Drying under high vacuum gave Sodium 2,2′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))diethanesulfonate as a white solid (2.01 g, 88%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.03 (s, 4H), 4.39 (t, J=6.2, 4H), 3.36 (t, J=6.2, 4H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 151.5, 115.5, 63.3, 49.3.

Butanesulfonate Wall (FIG. 5).

A solution of butanesultone (24.5 g, 200 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (160 mL) was added into a solution of hydroquinone (8.80 g, 80.0 mmol) in aqueous NaOH solution (10 wt %, 120 mL). The mixture was stirred at RT for 12 h then filtered to collect the crude solid. The solid was stirred with acetone (200 mL) then dried under high vacuum to yield Sodium 4,4′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))dibutane-1-sulfonate as a white solid (25.1 g, 80%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.02 (s, 4H), 4.09 (t, J=5.7, 4H), 2.99 (t, J=7.4, 4H), 1.85-2.00 (m, 8H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 152.1, 115.8, 68.3, 50.2, 26.8, 20.4.

2,7-Naphthalenesulfonate Wall (FIG. 6).

A solution of propanesultone (38.0 g, 300 mmol) in 1,4-dioxane (240 mL) was added into a solution of naphthalene-2,7-diol (20.0 g, 124 mmol) in NaOH (10 wt %, 160 mL). This solution was stirred at RT for 12 h. After filtration, the solid was collected and then dissolved in H₂O (100 mL) and then was precipitated by the addition of CH₃CN (600 mL). The solid was collected by filtration and then dried under high vacuum to yield a pale green solid (23.2 g, 41%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.77 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 7.23 (m, 2H), 7.07 (dd, J=8.9, 2.4, 2H), 4.24 (t, J=6.4, 4H), 3.05-3.15 (m, 4H), 2.15-2.30 (m, 4H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 156.2, 135.0, 128.9, 123.9, 115.8, 106.3, 66.0, 47.4, 23.7.

Ethanesulfonate Host a (FIG. 7).

Sodium 2,2′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))diethanesulfonate (1.81 g, 0.23 mmol) was added into a solution of methyl tetramer (0.64 g, 0.77 mmol) in TFA (2 mL). The mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 4 h. The solvent was removed with under reduced pressure and the solid was further dried under high vacuum. The solid was washed with the mixture of water and acetone (1:2, v/v, 30 mL) twice and then dissolved in water and adjusted to pH=7 by adding 1 M aqueous NaOH. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and then the solid was further dried under high vacuum to yield product a as a white solid (0.72 g, 61%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.94 (s, 4H), 5.67 (d, J=15.5, 2H), 5.56 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 5.44 (d, J=7.6, 2H), 5.38 (d, J=7.6, 2H), 5.35 (d, J=16.3, 4H) 4.45-4.25 (m, 8H), 4.24 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.21 (d, J=16.3, 4H) 4.10 (d, J=15.5, 2H), 3.55-3.40 (m, 4H), 3.35-3.20 (m, 4H), 1.79 (s, 6H), 1.75 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 156.4, 155.9, 149.6, 127.8, 114.4, 78.4, 77.1, 70.9, 70.8, 65.2, 52.2, 50.1, 48.0, 34.8, 15.6, 14.6.

Butanesulfonate Host b (FIG. 7).

Sodium 4,4′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(butane-1-sulfonate) (6.50 g, 15.4 mmol) was added into a solution of methyl tetramer (3.00 g, 3.84 mmol) in TFA (30 mL). The mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 4 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the solid was further dried under high vacuum. The solid was washed twice with the mixture of water and acetone (1:2, v/v, 300 mL) and then dissolved in water and adjusted to pH=7 by adding 1 M aqueous NaOH. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and then the solid was further dried under high vacuum to yield product b as a white solid (2.33 g, 40%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.01 (s, 4H), 5.62 (d, J=15.2, 2H), 5.51 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 5.45 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 5.35 (d, J=8.9, 2H), 5.24 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.30 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.25 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.04 (d, J=15.2, 2H), 3.90-3.75 (m, 8H), 2.90-2.75 (m, 4H), 2.70-2.55 (m, 4H), 1.79 (s, 12H), 1.79-1.30 (m, 16H).

Naphthalene propanesulfonate Host (FIG. 8).

Sodium 3,3′-(naphthalene-2,7-diylbis(oxy))dipropane-1-sulfonate (229 mg, 0.152 mmol) was added into a solution of methyl tetramer (100 mg, 0.128 mmol) in a mixture of TFA/Ac₂O (1:1, 2 mL). The mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 3 h and then was poured into acetone (30 mL). The solid was collected with filtration. The crude solid was dissolved in H₂O (10 mL), and then precipitated by the addition of acetone (30 mL). The product was then collected by filtration and then recrystallized from water and acetone (1:1, v/v, 5 mL). The purified product was obtained as a pale beige solid after drying under high vacuum (112 mg, 53%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.95 (d, J=8.9, 4H), 6.48 (d, J=8.9, 4H), 5.60 (d, J=16.3, 4H), 5.58 (d, J=15.4, 6H), 5.30 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.20 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 4.72 (d, J=16.3, 4H), 4.16 (d, J=15.4, 4H), 4.00-3.85 (m, 8H), 3.30-3.05 (m, 8H), 2.35-2.10 (m, 8H), 1.76 (s, 12H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, D₂O, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 156.4, 156.1, 155.0, 131.6, 127.3, 116.3, 112.6, 76.8, 75.4, 70.8, 68.1, 52.2, 48.0, 47.9, 33.1, 29.7, 24.4, 16.6, 15.2, (only 19 out of the 20 expected resonances were observed).

Tetrabromo Host (FIG. 9).

1,4-bis(2-bromoethoxy)benzene (1.70 g, 5.21 mmol) and methyl tetramer (1.20 g, 1.53 mmol) were mixed in a round bottom flask. TFA (12 mL) was added, and the mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 3 h. The reaction mixture was poured into MeOH (100 mL), and the solid was collected by filtration. The crude product was stirred with water (150 mL) and then acetone (150 mL) at RT and the solid was isolated by filtration. Drying at high vacuum gave the product as a white powder (1.71 g, 79%). M.p. 283-285° C. IR (ATR, cm⁻¹): 3000br, 1704 m, 1456 m, 1311 m, 1225 s, 1177 s, 1080 s, 966 m, 922 m, 818 m, 794 s, 754 m, 666 m. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 6.91 (s, 4H), 5.59 (d, J=14.4, 2H), 5.51 (d, J=15.2, 4H), 5.38 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.30-5.25 (m, 6H), 4.50-4.40 (m, 4H), 4.25-4.20 (m, 10H), 4.06 (d, J=15.2, 4H), 3.90-3.80 (m, 8H), 1.69 (s, 6H), 1.66 (s, 6H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, DMSO, 1,4-dioxane as internal reference): δ 156.0, 154.6, 151.0, 129.5, 116.7, 78.0, 76.8, 71.5, 71.4, 71.0, 53.6, 48.9, 35.2, 33.5, 17.2, 16.3.

Tetrathiophenyl Host (FIG. 10).

Sodium benzenethiolate (48 mg, 0.36 mmol) was dissolved in EtOH (2 mL). Tetrabromohost (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred at RT for 12 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to collect the crude product. The solid was washed with EtOH (10 mL) and then H₂O (10 mL). A pale yellow solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (63 mg, 58%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 7.45-7.05 (m, 20H), 6.68 (s, 4H), 5.62 (d, J=15.3, 2H), 5.51 (d, J=14.8, 4H), 5.39 (d, J=8.0, 2H), 5.27 (d, J=8.0, 2H), 5.24 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 4.25-4.10 (m, 4H), 4.10-3.85 (m, 14H), 3.45-3.30 (m, 8H), 1.69 (s, 6H), 1.63 (s, 6H).

Tetra Octanethioether Host (FIG. 11).

Octane-1-thiol (53 mg, 0.36 mmol) was dissolved in EtOH (2 mL). Tetrabromohost (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred at RT for 3 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to collect crude solid. The solid was washed with EtOH (10 mL) and then H₂O (10 mL). A white solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (103 mg, 72%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 6.82 (s, 4H), 5.59 (d, J=12.2, 2H), 5.48 (d, J=14.8, 4H), 5.35 (d, J=8.6, 2H), 5.24 (d, J=8.6, 2H), 5.24 (d, J=16.4, 4H), 4.25-4.20 (m, 4H), 4.08 (d, J=16.4, 4H), 4.04 (d, J=14.8, 4H), 4.10-4.00 (m, 4H), 3.99 (d, J=12.2, 2H), 2.88 (t, J=5.6, 8H), 2.63 (t, J=7.2, 8H), 1.66 (s, 6H), 1.62 (s, 6H), 1.56 (m, 8H), 1.40-1.15 (m, 40H), 0.83 (t, J=7.2, 12H).

PEG 350 Host (FIG. 12).

PEG 350 (176 mg, 0.43 mmol) and NaOEt (29 mg, 0.43 mmol) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (2 mL). Tetrabromo Host (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred and heated at 50° C. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to remove insoluble material and the clear solution was concentrated and poured into diethyl ether (10 mL). The white precipitate was collected by centrifugation. A dark yellow gel was obtained after drying under high vacuum (150 mg, 82%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.64 (s, 4H), 5.64 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 5.60-5.35 (m, 8H), 5.34 (d, J=8.4, 2H), 4.35 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.20-4.10 (m, 12H), 4.05, (d, J=12.3, 2H), 3.95-3.55 (m, 160H), 3.38 (s, 12H), 3.11 (t, J=6.0, 8H), 2.96 (t, J=6.0, 8H), 1.89 (s, 6H), 1.86 (s, 6H).

PEG 750 Host (FIG. 12).

PEG 750 (349 mg, 0.43 mmol) and NaOEt (29 mg, 0.43 mmol) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (2 mL). Tetrabromo Host (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to remove insoluble material and a mixture of CH₂Cl₂ and MeOH (5 mL, 4:1) was added to the supernatant. Diethyl ether (10 mL) was added and then the mixture was centrifuged to isolate a white precipitate. A pale yellow solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (172 mg, 58%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.03 (s, 4H), 5.68 (d, J=16.2, 2H), 5.56 (d, J=15.6, 4H), 5.45-5.25 (m, 8H), 4.30-4.00 (m, 18H), 3.95-3.55 (m, 320H), 3.32 (s, 12H), 3.00-2.75 (m, 8H), 2.65 (t, J=6.0, 8H), 1.76 (s, 6H), 1.72 (s, 6H).

PEG 1900 Host (FIG. 12).

PEG 1900 (823 mg, 0.43 mmol) and NaOEt (29 mg, 0.43 mmol) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (2 mL). Tetrabromo Host (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to remove insoluble material and a mixture of CH₂Cl₂ and MeOH (5 mL, 4:1) was added to the supernatant. Diethyl ether (10 mL) was added and then the mixture was centrifuged to isolate a white precipitate. The product was further purified by GPC using Sephadex-G25. A pale yellow solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (213 mg, 34%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.49 (s, 4H), 5.46 (d, J=16.4, 4H), 5.40-5.20 (m, 8H), 5.19 (d, J=8.4, 2H), 4.15 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.10-3.85 (m, 16H), 3.95-3.55 (m, 800H), 3.22 (s, 12H), 2.96 (t, J=6.2, 8H), 2.81 (t, J=6.2, 8H), 1.73 (s, 6H), 1.71 (s, 6H).

PEG 5000 Host (FIG. 12).

PEG 5000 (2.16 g, 0.43 mmol) and NaOEt (29 mg, 0.43 mmol) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (4 mL). Tetrabromo Host (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 12 h. The reaction mixture was centrifuged to remove insoluble material and a mixture of CH₂Cl₂ and MeOH (5 mL, 4:1) was added to the supernatant. Diethyl ether (10 mL) was added and then the mixture was centrifuged to isolate a white precipitate. The product was further purified by GPC using Sephadex-G25. A pale yellow solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (351 mg, 23%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 7.05 (s, 4H), 5.71 (d, J=15.5, 2H), 5.62 (d, J=15.6, 4H), 5.60-5.25 (m, 8H), 4.30-4.00 (m, 18H), 3.95-3.55 (m, 1840H), 3.32 (s, 12H), 3.00-2.75 (m, 8H), 2.66 (t, J=6.0, 8H), 1.76 (s, 6H), 1.74 (s, 6H).

Dibromo dipropanesulfonate Host (FIG. 13).

1,4-bis(2-bromoethoxy)benzene (250 mg, 0.768 mmol) and sodium 3,3′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))bis(propane-1-sulfonate) (102 mg, 0.256 mmol) were added into a solution of methyl tetramer (200 mg, 0.256 mmol) in TFA (2.5 mL). The mixture was stirred and heated at 70° C. for 3 h and then was poured into acetone (150 mL). The solid was collected by filtration. The crude solid was stirred with water (30 mL×3) at RT for 4 hr. The filtrate was collected and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The product was purified by recrystallization from H₂O and MeOH (1:1, 15 mL). The product was obtained as a white solid after drying under high vacuum (112 mg, 53%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.97 (s, 2H), 6.72 (s, 2H), 5.62 (d, J=15.9, 2H), 5.60 (d, J=15.9, 2H), 5.53 (d, J=16.4, 2H), 5.45 (d, J=5.8, 2H), 5.43 (d, J=15.9, 2H), 5.40 (d, J=5.0, 2H), 5.21 (d, J=10.8, 2H), 4.27 (d, J=16.4, 2H), 4.25-4.20 (m, 8H), 4.15-4.05 (m, 8H), 3.95-3.75 (m, 4H), 3.45-3.35 (m, 2H), 3.25-3.20 (m, 2H), 3.14 (t, J=7.7, 4H), 2.35-2.15 (m, 4H), 1.87 (s, 3H), 1.81 (s, 3H), 1.67 (s, 3H), 1.66 (s, 3H).

Tetra Ester Host (FIG. 14).

2,2′-(1,4-phenylenebis(oxy))diethanol (1.02 g, 5.12 mmol) and methyl tetramer (1.00 g, 1.28 mmol) were mixed as solid and then dissolved in a mixture of TFA and Ac₂O (1:1, 10 mL). The mixture was stirred at 70° C. for 3.5 h and then was poured into MeOH (150 mL). The solid was collected by filtration and was washed with acetone (100 mL) and water (100 mL). After drying under high vacuum, the product was obtained as a white powder (1.51 g, 90%). M.p.>300° C. IR (ATR, cm⁻¹): 3000 w, 1711 s, 1456 s, 1313 m, 1225 s, 1178 s, 1076 s. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 6.85 (s, 4H), 5.58 (d, J=16.3, 2H), 5.48 (d, J=15.6, 4H), 5.37 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.27 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.23 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.45-4.30 (m, 4H), 4.30-4.05 (m, 14H), 3.50-3.45 (m, 8H), 2.06 (s, 12H), 1.76 (s, 12H).

Tetra Hydroxy Host (FIG. 15).

Tetra Ester Host (0.400 g, 0.305 mmol) was added into an aqueous solution of LiOH (2.5 M, 7.5 mL). The mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 0.5 h and then the solid was collected by filtration. The solid was wash with 0.1 M HCl to neutral and then stirred with EtOH (30 mL), and water (30 mL). After drying under high vacuum, a white solid was obtained (0.234 g, 67%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, D₂O): 6.95 (s, 4H), 5.62 (d, J=15.3, 2H), 5.52 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 5.43 (d, J=8.0, 2H), 5.20 (d, J=8.0, 2H), 4.72 (d, J=16.2, 4H), 4.28 (d, J=15.7, 4H), 4.23 (d, J=16.2, 4H), 4.19 (d, J=15.3, 2H), 3.85-3.50 (m, 8H), 3.45-2.85 (m, 8H), 1.76 (s, 12H).

Tetrathioacetate Host (FIG. 16).

K₂CO₃ (99 mg, 0.43 mmol) and Ethanethioic S-acid (55 mg, 0.43 mmol) was added into DMF (2 mL) and was stirred at RT for 15 min under N₂. Tetrabromo Host (100 mg, 0.072 mmol) was added as a solid. The mixture was stirred at 50° C. for 12 h and then was poured into H₂O (6 mL). The solid was collected by filtration and was then washed with H₂O (5 mL) and acetone (5 mL). A beige solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (73 mg, 74%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 6.85 (s, 4H), 5.58 (d, J=16.3, 2H), 5.48 (d, J=15.6, 4H), 5.38 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.27 (d, J=9.0, 2H), 5.22 (d, J=16.0, 4H), 4.25-4.10 (m, 4H), 4.15-3.90 (m, 14H), 3.35-3.25 (m, 8H), 2.37 (s, 12H), 1.68 (s, 6H), 1.64 (s, 6H).

Tetra Triazole Host (FIG. 17).

Ascorbic acid (7 mg, 0.04 mmol), NaOH (2 mg, 0.04 mmol) and CuSO₄ (2 mg, 0.01 mmol) was mixed and then dissolved in a mixture of H₂O and EtOH (1 mL, 1:1). Alkyne Host (26 mg, 0.024 mmol) and (R)-2-azidopropanoic acid (22 mg, 0.19 mmol) was added as solid. The mixture was heated with microwave at 80° C. for 30 min, and then solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The crude solid was washed with MeOH (2 mL). A yellowish solid was obtained after drying under high vacuum (15 mg, 40%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO): 8.44 (s, 2H), 8.34 (s, 2H), 6.97 (m, 4H), 5.65-5.45 (m, 12H), 5.39 (d, J=8.4, 2H), 5.25-5.05 (m, 18H), 4.25-4.00 (m, 4H), 1.72 (m, 12H), 1.69 (s, 6H), 1.64 (s, 6H).

Example 3

X-ray crystallographic structures for examples of compounds of the present invention are show in FIGS. 20-21. The crystals were grown by dissolving the compounds in mixtures of TFA and water, filtering into a clean 4 mL screw capped vial and allowing them to stand in a glass desiccation chamber at room temperature until crystals formed.

(FIG. 20) A colorless prism of Na₄(C₅₄H₆₄N₁₆O₂₄S₄).5.32CF₃COOH-14.29H₂O, approximate dimensions 0.26×0.365×0.365 mm³, was used for the X-ray crystallographic analysis. The X-ray intensity data were measured at 150(2) K on a three-circle diffractometer system equipped with Bruker Smart Apex II CCD area detector using a graphite monochromator and a MoKα. fine-focus sealed tube (λ=0.71073 Å). The detector was placed at a distance of 6.000 cm from the crystal. A total of 3180 frames were collected with a scan width of −0.30° in CD and an exposure time of 40 sec/frame using Apex2 (Bruker, 2005). The total data collection time was 40.6 hours. The frames were integrated with Apex2 software package using a narrow-frame integration algorithm. The integration of the data using a Monoclinic unit cell yielded a total of 53424 reflections to a maximum θ angle of 25.00°, of which 8787 were independent (completeness=99.9%, R_(int)=2.91%, R_(sig)=1.84%) and 8368 were greater than 2σ(1). The final cell dimensions of a=23.4856(10) Å, b=24.7081(11) Å, c=19.3126(8) Å, a.=90°, 13=117.1930(10°), γ=90°, V=9968.1(7) Å³, are based upon the refinement of the XYZ-centroids of 33943 reflections with 2.3<θ<28.3° using Apex2. Analysis of the data showed 0% decay during data collection. Data were corrected for absorption effects with the Semiempirical from equivalents method using SADABS (Sheldrick, 1996). The minimum and maximum transmission coefficients were 0.840 and 0.936. The structure was solved and refined using the SHELXS-97 (Sheldrick, 1990) and SHELXL-97 (Sheldrick, 1997) software in the space group C2/c with Z=4 for the formula unit Na₄(C₅₄H₆₄N₁₆O₂₄S₄).5.32 CF₃COOH.14.29H₂O. The final anisotropic full-matrix least-squares refinement on F² with 908 variables converged at R₁=8.55% for the observed data and wR₂=16.67% for all data. The goodness-of-fit was 1.000. The largest peak on the final difference map was 0.822 ē/Å³ and the largest hole was −0.668 ē/Å³. On the basis of the final model, the calculated density was 1.651 g/cm³ and F(000), 5082 ē.

(FIG. 21) A colorless prism of Na₄[(C₂HF₃O₂)@(C₆₂H₆₈N₁₆O₂₄S₄)}.˜10(C₂HF₃O₂).˜12.5H₂O, approximate dimensions 0.52×0.53×0.59 mm³, was used for the X-ray crystallographic analysis. The X-ray intensity data were measured at 100(2) K on a three-circle diffractometer system equipped with Bruker Smart Apex II CCD area detector using a graphite monochromator and a MoKα fine-focus sealed tube (λ=0.71073 Å). The detector was placed at a distance of 6.0000 cm from the crystal. A total of 2480 frames were collected with a scan width of −0.299988° an exposure time of 30 sec/frame using Apex2 (Bruker, 2005). The total data collection time was 24.8 hours. The frames were integrated with Apex2 software package using a narrow-frame integration algorithm. The integration of the data using a Triclinic unit cell yielded a total of 119514 reflections to a maximum θ angle of 25.00°, of which 46074 were independent (completeness=99.6%, R_(int)=2.53%, R_(sig)=3.84%) and 35361 were greater than 2σ(1). The final cell dimensions of a=19.457(2) Å, b=23.652(2) Å, c=29.876(3) Å, a=80.7050(10°), =87.9730(10°), Y=75.3600(10°), V=13127(2) Å³, are based upon the refinement of the XYZ-centroids of 63011 reflections with 2.2<θ<28.2° using Apex2 software. Analysis of the data showed 0% decay during data collection. Data were corrected for absorption effects with the Semi-empirical from equivalents method using SADABS (Sheldrick, 1996). The minimum and maximum transmission coefficients were 0.795 and 0.887. The structure was solved and refined using the SHELXS-97 (Sheldrick, 1990) and SHELXL-97 (Sheldrick, 1997) software in the space group P-1 with Z=8 for the formula unit Na₄[(C₂HF₃O₂)@(C₆₂H₆₈N₁₆O₂₄S₄)}—˜10(C₂HF₃O₂).˜12.5H₂O2. The final anisotropic full-matrix least-squares refinement on F² with 2219 variables converged at R₁=10.80% for the observed data and wR₂=23.75% for all data. The goodness-of-fit was 1.000. The largest peak on the final difference map was 1.05 ge/A3 and the largest hole was −1.071e/A3. On the basis of the final model, the calculated density was 1.579 g/cm³ and F(000), 6372 ē.

Example 4 Procedure to Measure the Solubility of Pharmaceutical Agents with Motor1 or Motor2

Into a solution of Motor1 or Motor2 in deuterated sodium phosphate buffer (20 mM, pD=7.4) at a known concentration, excess amount of pharmaceutical agent was added. The suspended mixture was magnetically stirred at room temperature for 12 h. During this period, the pD value of the solution was monitored and adjusted back to 7.4 if it changed. The mixture was then centrifuged twice (4200 rpm, 10 min) The concentration of pharmaceutical agent in the supernatant solution was determined by ¹H NMR (400 MHz) spectroscopy by comparing the integral of a known concentration of 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid as internal standard with selected ¹H NMR resonances for the pharmaceutical agent.

Procedure to Measure the Solubility of Pharmaceutical Agents Alone

Excess amount of the pharmaceutical agent was added into sodium phosphate buffer (20 mM, pH=7.4, 100 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 12 h. Then the mixture was centrifuged twice (4200 rpm, 10 min.). The solvent of the supernatant was removed by rotary evaporation and then the resulting solid was further dried on high vacuum for 6 h. The residual solid was dissolved in either DMSO-d₆ or CDCl₃. The concentration of pharmaceutical agent was measured by ¹H NMR (400 MHz) spectroscopy by comparing the integral of a known concentration of 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid or 1,4-dioxane as internal standard with selected ¹H NMR resonances for the pharmaceutical agent. These procedures were repeated at a series of Motor1 or Motor2 concentrations in order to construct phase-solubility diagrams (FIGS. 22-34).

Determination of the Solubility of Motor1 in Water and Neutral Buffer.

Motor1 was added in excess to 1 mL deuterium oxide or 20 mM sodium phosphate buffered D₂O (pD=7.4). For phosphate buffered D₂O, the suspension was adjusted to pD=7.4. This suspension was magnetically stirred at room temperature overnight and then centrifuged (4300 rpm) twice for 10 minutes each time. Supernatant (10 μL) and 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid (100 mM, 20 μL in D₂O or 10 μL in phosphate buffered D₂O) were added into 0.6 mL deuterium oxide (D₂O) solvent. The concentration of Motor1 was measured with ¹H NMR and calculated using 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid as internal reference. Similar methods were used to determine the intrinsic solubility of Motor2 and solubility enhancement of Motor2 toward pharmaceutical agents.

Example 5 Determination of the Solubility of Motor1 in Water

The use of CB[n]-type molecular containers in a variety of applications has been hampered by their poor solubility in aqueous solution. For example, of the CB[n] compounds that exhibit good binding properties (CB[6], CB[7], CB[8], and CB[10]) only CB[7] has a solubility that exceeds 100 μM (Solubility of CB[7]≈20 mM). We determined the inherent solubility of Motor1 in pure water (346 mM) and in 20 mM

Experimental Procedure: Solid Motor1 was added to 1 mL deuterium oxide or 20 mM sodium phosphate buffered D₂O (pD=7.4) until solid Motor1 remained insoluble. For phosphate buffered D₂O, the suspension was adjusted to pD=7.4. This suspension was magnetically stirred at room temperature overnight and then centrifuged (4300 rpm) twice for 10 minutes each time. To quantitate the concentration of Motor1 in the supernatant we used ¹H NMR spectrospcopy. Aliquots of the supernatant (10 μL) and 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid (100 mM, 20 μL in D₂O or 10 μL in phosphate buffered D₂O) were added to 0.6 mL deuterated solvent. The concentration of Motor1 was calculated by measuring the relative integrals for Motor1 versus the known concentration of 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid by ¹H NMR.

Determination of K_(a) Between Motor1 and Various Compounds.

Once we had determined the extremely high solubility of Motor1 in water we decided to measure its binding toward guests, which include, rhodamine 6G, crystal violet dye, 1,4-phenylene diamine, 1,4-butanediamine, and succinyl choline. It is generally possible to measure K_(a) values up to 10⁴ M⁻¹ by ¹H NMR spectroscopic methods. For values that exceed this level it is necessary to use other techniques like UV/Vis, Fluorescence, or isothermal titration calorimetry. We decided to use UV/Vis spectroscopy. The direct titration of fixed concentrations of UV/Vis Rhodamine 6G or Crystal Violet dye with Motor1 allowed us to determine their values of K_(a) given in Table 2 by fitting to a 1:1 binding model. To determine the value of K_(a) for Motor1 toward guests benzene 1,4-diamine, butane 1,4-diamine, and succinyl chloride which are not UV/Vis active we used an indicator displacement assay involving the addition of guest to a solution of Motor1 and Rhodamine 6G or Crystal Violet dye. The change in UV/Vis absorbance as the concentration of guest increases can be fitted to a competitive binding model which allows determination of the remaining K_(a) values given in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Binding constants of guests with Motor1 (20 mM sodium phosphate, pH = 7.4). Guest K_(a) Rhodamine 6G 4.8 ± 0.1 × 10⁵ Crystal Violet 5.2 ± 0.8 × 10⁶ Dye benzene-1,4- 3.5 ± 0.2 × 10⁵ diamine butane-1,4- 1.2 ± 0.1 × 10⁵ diamine succinyl choline 1.9 ± 0.1 × 10⁵ a) Obtained by competitive indicator displacement assay with rhodamine 6G.

Example 6 Binding Constant Determination of Motor1 Toward Taxol

Binding constant was calculated based on 1:1 drug/excipient inclusion complex formation according to literature method. Equation S1 was used to calculate K_(a). (S1) K_(a)=Slope/[S₀(1−Slope)] where S₀ is the intrinsic solubility of the pharmaceutical agent, and Slope is the slope of the linear part of the phase-solubility diagram. The linear part of the phase-solubility diagram was used to determine the slope. The slope value along with the intrinsic concentration give a K_(a) value of 1.9×10⁴ M⁻¹.

Binding Constant Determination of Motor1 Toward Tamoxifen

Binding constant was calculated based on 1:1 drug/excipient inclusion complex formation according to literature method. Equation S1 was used to calculate K_(a). (S1) K_(a)=Slope/[S₀(1−Slope)] where S₀ is the intrinsic solubility of the pharmaceutical agent, and Slope is the slope of the linear part of the phase-solubility diagram. The linear part of the phase-solubility diagram was used to determine the slope. The slope value along with the intrinsic concentration give a K_(a) value of 3.7×10³ M⁻¹.

Binding Constant Determination of Motor2 Toward Taxol

Binding constant was calculated based on 1:1 drug/excipient inclusion complex formation according to literature method. Equation S1 was used to calculate K_(a). (S1) K_(a)=Slope/[S₀(1−Slope)] where S₀ is the intrinsic solubility of the pharmaceutical agent, and Slope is the slope of the linear part of the phase-solubility diagram. The slope value along with the intrinsic solubility give a K_(a) value of 3.1×10⁴ M⁻¹.

Binding Constant Determination of Motor2 Toward Tamoxifen

Binding constant was calculated based on 1:1 drug/excipient inclusion complex formation according to literature method. Equation S1 was used to calculate K_(a). (S1) K_(a)=Slope/[S₀(1−Slope)] where S₀ is the intrinsic solubility of the pharmaceutical agent, and Slope is the slope of the linear part of the phase-solubility diagram. The slope value along with the intrinsic solubility give a K_(a) value of 1.2×10⁴ M⁻¹.

Example 7 Toxicity Studies

To measure the cellular toxicity of Motor1 we use two complementary assays: an MTS (CellTiter 96 AQueous Kit®) assay that measures cellular metabolism, and a cytotoxicity assay (Toxilight® BioAssay Kit) that measures cell death via the release of the cytosolic enzyme adenylate kinase (AK) into the supernatant. Both assays were used with two different cell lines commonly used in drug toxicity studies, HEK293 and HepG2 cell lines. HEK293, a human kidney cell line, is used to assess the effect of the drug candidate on the renal system and HepG2, a human hepatocyte cell line, is used to assess the response of liver cells where drugs are metabolized. Both assays included the use of an untreated population, and cells treated with distilled water, erythromycin and erythromycin estolate and the test compounds for 48 h. Erythromycin is a commercially available drug widely used to treat bacterial infections. Erythromycin estolate, however, is a derivative with high toxicity. Erythromycin, with an EC₅₀ value of 594 (±194) μM is significantly less toxic compared to erythromycin estolate, which has an EC₅₀ of 109 (±7) μM. These two drugs were chosen specifically to serve as a point of comparison for the levels of cytotoxicity resulting from Motor1.

Both cell lines were incubated with the containers (0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 mM) for 2 days prior to analysis with the two assays. Relative absorbance and luminescence data was normalized to percent cell viability (MTS) and cell death (AK). For the MTS assay, the untreated cells were set at 100% cell viability while the cell population treated with distilled water was set at a 100% cell death for the AK assay.

The MTS assay conducted on the HEK293 (FIG. 38A) cell line showed high cell survival for three different concentrations of Motor1 at 92, 96, 89 and 79% cell viability. However, cell populations treated with distilled water (0.2%), 1 mM of erythromycin (47%) and erythromycin estolate (11%) showed significant decrease in cell viability. The AK assay (FIG. 38B) performed on this cell line reflected these results. Percent cell death observed in the cells treated with 1 mM erythromycin and erythromycin estolate were 25 and 49% respectively. However, cell death in the untreated population and all concentrations of Motor1 was below 5%.

Similar results were observed in the HepG2 cell line (FIG. 39). The HepG2 cells treated with increasing concentrations of Motor1 showed high cell viability at 104, 100, 102 and 82% respectively in the MTS assay (FIG. 39A). These results were comparable to cell viability observed in the untreated population. However, HepG2 cells treated with distilled water (1%), 1 mM erythromycin (36%) and erythromycin estolate (10%) showed significant decreases in cell viability. These results were confirmed in the AK assay (FIG. 39B) performed using the HepG2 cell line. High percentage of cell death was observed with samples treated with erythromycin estolate at 1 mM (100% cell death). HepG2 cells exhibited high background levels in this assay as indicated by the 60% cell death in the untreated population. All cell samples treated with increasing concentrations of Motor1 show low cytotoxicity (55, 56, 50 and 17% cell death) in comparison to the untreated samples.

Overall Motor1 was found to be non-toxic in both human kidney and liver cells up to a concentration of 10 mM.

A hemolysis assay (FIG. 40) was conducted to assess any toxic effects of Motor1 on human erythrocytes. These assays used pooled blood from two healthy donors from which red blood cells were isolated through centrifugation. Erythrocytes were exposed to phosphate buffered saline (PBS), distilled water, and increasing concentrations of Motor1 (0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 mM). The erythrocytes were incubated shaking at 37° C. for 3 hours following treatment. The release of hemoglobin from damaged red blood cells was quantified by measuring the relative absorbance of the samples at 405 nm. Data collected was converted to percent hemolysis by setting the cell population treated with distilled water at a 100% hemolysis.

This assay showed that while erythrocytes treated with distilled water resulted in a high percentage of hemolysis, samples incubated with PBS, and increasing concentrations of Motor1 did not result in hemolysis above 20%.

The hemolysis assay data support the conclusion that the Motor1 is non-toxic to human erythrocytes up to a concentration of 10 mM. FIG. 41 shows Motor1 is well tolerated in mice. Indicated amounts of Motor1 were injected into the tail vein of outbred Swiss Webster mice at day 0, 4 and 8. The weight of each mouse was monitored over time and there were 5 mice per experimental group. FIG. 42 shows Motor1 facilitates killing of cancer cells by Paclitaxel. MCF-7 cancer cells were left untreated (UT), lysed with detergent, incubated with buffer, or Motor1 alone and treated with Taxol alone or Taxol plus 10 mM Motor1 or Taxol plus 15 mM Motor1. The MTS assay was used to determine the viability of cells after 48 h of treatment as expressed in units of optical density at 405 nm. FIG. 43 shows Motor1 facilitates killing of cancer cells by Paclitaxel. SKOV-3 cancer cells were left untreated (UT), lysed with detergent, incubated with buffer, or Motor1 alone and treated with Taxol alone or Taxol plus 10 mM Motor1 or Taxol plus 15 mM. The MTS assay was used to determine the viability of cells after 48 h of treatment as expressed in units of optical density at 405 nm.

We measured in vivo clearance of compounds of the invention via urine. For urine samples (Table 3), we took 0.1 mL from each urine sample and dried them under high vacuum. Then they were dissolved in 0.5 mL D₂O, and 0.1 mL of 60 mM reference solution (1,3,5-tricarboxylate benzene) was added. NMR spectra were taken and the concentration of Motor1 in urine was calculated from the ratio between the integration of diagnostic peak for reference (8.3 ppm, 3H) and Motor1 (1.9-1.5 ppm, 12H).

TABLE 3 Urine Sam- vol- Mass ple ume Inte- [Motor1] [Motor1] (Motor1) No. (μL) gral* (mM) (mg/mL) (mg) Notes R1U 930 3.34 6.958 10.723 9.972 R2U 530 0.06 0.125 0.193 0.102 Blood in urine R3U 580 10.25 21.354 32.907 19.086 R4U 240 8.88 18.500 28.509 6.842 Precipitate in urine R5U 1350 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 R6U 415 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 R7U 725 5.72 11.917 18.364 13.314 R8U 610 13.78 28.708 44.240 26.986 R9U 950 4.21 8.771 13.516 12.840 R10U 315 8.70 18.125 27.931 8.798 R11U 560 1.03 2.146 3.307 1.852 R12U N/A R13U 815 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 R14U 355 10.62 22.125 34.095 12.104 R15U 305 6.88 14.333 22.088 6.737 Blood in urine R16U 455 12.28 25.583 39.424 17.938 R17U 255 10.74 22.375 34.480 8.792 R18U 610 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 R19U 615 1.27 2.646 4.077 2.507 Precipitate in urine R20U 190 5.39 11.229 17.304 3.288 Precipitate in urine R21U 585 2.40 5.000 7.705 4.507 R22U 390 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 Precipitate in urine

For Plasma samples, four rats in total have been tested: Rat 10, Rat 17, Rat 11, Rat 21. For each plasma sample, 10 μL of plasma was taken and dried under high vacuum. Excess amount of probe solution was added (495 μL of 38 μM p-xylenediamine) to dissolve the residue and then the reference (5 μL of 600 μM benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid) was added. NMR spectra was taken with water suppression and the concentration of Motor1 was calculated from the ratio between the integrations of the peaks for the reference (8.2 ppm, 3H) and Motor1 (6.5 ppm, 4H). For Rat 17, benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid was not used, but p-xylenediamine was used as the reference (FIGS. 44-47).

FIG. 48 shows toxicology studies performed using Motor2. Varying concentrations of Motor2 incubated with THP-1 (A) and HEK 293 (B) cells over a 48 hr period resulted in high cell survival up to 5 mM Motor2. Two complementary assays were used to analyze toxicology: an MTS assay and an AK release assay for the THP-1 cells. The AK release assay was conducted using 20 ul of supernatant from each sample studied using the MTS assay. The Vialight assay was used to assess cell viability in the HEK 293 cells. (UT=Untreated, Stx=Staurosporine, Triton=Trition-X-100). Unpaired t-test analysis was used with *P=0.01-0.05; **P=0.001-0.01; ***P, 0.001 for the statistical analysis of all figures presented. FIG. 49 shows in vitro Bioactivity studies using Motor2. Hela (A) and MCF-7 (B) cells treated for 24 hrs with Tamoxifen complexed with Motor2 showed a significant increase in cell death as a result of the increase in Tamoxifen (0.27 mM) concentration once complexed by the container. Tamoxifen (0.01 mM) alone in phosphate buffer showed little to no cell death in comparison to the untreated samples as did treatment with Motor2 (2.5 mM) alone which indicates the container alone did not result in cancer cell death. MTS analysis of the data obtained for Hela (A), and MCF (B) cells showed high cell survival for treatment with Motor2 or Tamoxifen alone whereas treatment with Tamoxifen complexed with Motor2 showed very low cell survival (green=nuclei, red=actin, Stx=Staurosporine, Tamoxifen=T, Motor2=M2). FIG. 50 shows MTS analysis of SK-OV-3 after a 48 hr treatment. MTS=(3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium).

FIG. 51 shows in vitro bioactivity. Hela (A) and MCF-7 (B) cells treated with Paclitaxel complexed with Motor1 showed increased DNA fragmentation and cell death as a result of the significant increase in Paclitaxel (0.6 mM) solubility once complexed to the container. Paclitaxel (0.002 mM) alone in phosphate buffer showed little to no cell death in comparison to the untreated samples as did the Motor1 (5 mM) alone treatments indicating the container alone did not result in cancer cell death (green=nuclei, red=actin, Paclitaxel=P, Motor1=M1). FIG. 54 shows toxicology using Motor2. Varying concentrations of Motor2 incubated with THP-1 (A) and HEK 293 (B) cells over a 48 hr period resulted in high cell survival up to 5 mM. Two complementary assays were used to analyze toxicology an MTS and an AK release assay for the THP-1 cells. The AK release assay was conducted using 20 ul of supernatant from each sample studied using the MTS assay. The Vialight assay was used to assess cell viability in the HEK 293 cells. (UT=Untreated, Stx=Staurosporine, Triton=Trition-X-100). Unpaired t-test analysis was used with *P=0.01-0.05; **P=0.001-0.01; ***P, 0.001 for the statistical analysis of all figures presented.

Example 8

This Example provides a demonstration of the safety of Motor1 and its efficacy as an anti-cancer agent, which is also an anti-helminthic agent.

Motor1 is a novel acyclic CB[n]-type compound that has been shown to significantly increase the solubility of many active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and was found to be non-toxic in some ex vivo and in vivo toxicity studies as described above. This Example includes a demonstration of using Motor1 as a solubilizing agent for in vivo delivery of the anti-cancer agent ABZ (FIG. 53).

Ex Vivo Motor1 Biocompatibility Studies.

Salmonella typhimurium Mutagenicity Assay.

The studies on Motor1 described above established acute safety in human cell lines and the mouse model. In order to expand the scope of the Motor1 toxicology analysis, we assessed the mutagenicity of the compound using the reverse mutation assay (Ames test). This assay utilizes four different S. typhimurium strains, which possess unique G-C mutations within the histidine operon. This assay also employs rat liver enzyme fractions (S9) to model the interaction of test compounds with liver enzymes and to investigate the mutagenic potential of metabolites. A positive result is determined by comparing the number of reverting colonies obtained after treatment with the test compound with the number of spontaneous revertants for each S. typhimurium strain used. A compound is thought to be mutagenic if the test numbers exceed twice the number of spontaneous colonies. In this instance, a ratio of 2 and above for Motor1/solvent control would indicate a positive result (e.g. mutagenicity).

The S. typhimurium strain TA1535 (FIG. 54 a-b) contains a T to C missense mutation in the hisG gene (hisG46) leading to a leucine to proline amino acid substitution. With the reversal of this mutation, TA1535 can detect compounds that cause base-pair mutations. Motor1 (0.037 mg/plate) incubated without the S9 fraction (FIG. 2 a), resulted in the largest number of revertant TA1535 colonies (12±5 colonies). When incubated with the S9 fraction (FIG. 54 b), Motor1 (0.33 mg/plate) resulted in 11±1 revertant colonies. The Motor1/solvent control ratio was found to be 1.3 (−S9) and 1.22 (+S9). The positive controls for this strain showed 232 revertant colonies for the sodium azide (−S9) treatment and 27 colonies for the 2-aminoanthracene (+S9) samples.

The TA1537 strain detects compounds that induce a +1 frameshift mutation on the hisC gene (hisC3076). This allows frameshift mutagens to be detected. Using this strain, the highest number of colonies (6 colonies) were seen at 0.037 mg/plate of Motor1 without the S9 fraction (FIG. 54 c) resulting in a ratio of 1. Likewise, when incubated with the S9 fractions (FIG. 54 d), the highest number of colonies (5±1) were observed at 0.11 mg/plate of Motor1, resulting in a ratio of 1.25. Positive controls produced 91 revertant colonies when treated with ICR 191 Acridine (−S9) and 122 colonies with 2-aminoanthracene (+S9).

The TA98 strain detects +1 frameshift mutation on the hisD gene (hisD3052) and also contains the pkM101 plasmid, which increases the sensitivity of the strain to mutagenic compounds. For this strain, results indicated a ratio of 1.27 at an Motor1 concentration of 0.11 mg/plate (23±4 colonies) without the S9 fraction (FIG. 54 e). With the S9 fraction (FIG. 54 f), 0.012 mg/plate of Motor1 (16±8 colonies) resulted in a ratio of 1.06. Furthermore, the positive controls for the strain resulted in 361 revertant colonies when treated with Daunomycin (−S9) and 1084 colonies with 2-aminoanthracene (+S9) incubation.

Finally, TA100 (FIG. 54 g-h) contains the same mutation as TA1535 plus the pk Motor1 01 plasmid. Incubation with this strain resulted in a ratio of 1.25 for a Motor1 concentration of 0.11 mg/plate without the S9 fraction (39±1 colonies; FIG. 2 g). With the S9 fraction (FIG. 2 h), Motor1 at 1 mg/plate (70±2 colonies) resulted in a ratio of 1.59. The positive controls yielded 167 revertant colonies with sodium azide (−S9) and 1345 colonies with 2-aminoanthracene (+S9) incubation.

The evaluation of Motor1 for concentrations up to 1 mg/plate using the Ames test (FIG. 54 a-h) revealed revertant colony numbers that did not exceed double the number of colonies induced by the solvent control. Consequently, the Ames test conducted using four different S. typhimurium strains and a Motor1 concentration of up to 1 mM provided no indications of Motor1 mutagenicity. Although extensive Ames test data on the cyclodextrins alone is not available, several tests conducted with prospective drugs indicated non-mutagenicity. Similar studies with candidate drugs formulated with Motor1 can be conducted and genotoxicity assays using mammalian cells, such as the micronucleus assay, can be conducted to further assess the biosafety of M1.

hERG Channel Inhibition Assay.

The human Ether-a-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) channel is a voltage-gated potassium channel in cardiac cells that is essential for cardiac repolarization. With the inhibition of this channel, the electrical depolarization and repolarization of the heart ventricles can be extended, leading to potentially fatal cardiac malfunction. Evaluating a novel API's ability to interfere with the hERG channel functions is a standard safety assessment test conducted during drug development. One way to evaluate the ability of a compound to inhibit the ion channel is via the patch-clamp technique. Here the patch clamp hERG assay was conducted using Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells expressing the hERG channel (FIG. 55). IC₅₀ values below 0.1 μM are defined as highly potent inhibitors of the hERG channel, values between 0.1-1 μM as potent, values between 1-10 μM as moderately potent and finally, IC₅₀ values above 10 μM are typically categorized as having little to no inhibition of the channel.

The positive control, quinidine, showed a distinct decrease from an average of 90±4% to 1±6% in the post-treatment current across the ion channel with increasing concentrations of the compound (FIG. 55). A nonlinear regression analysis, using GraphPad Prism 6, was performed to calculate an IC₅₀ value of 1.66 μM for quinidine. As a result, quinidine was categorized as a moderately potent inhibitor of the hERG channel. Treatment with Motor1 up to a concentration of 25 μM did not result in significant differences in the observed current since they measured between 93±3% to 101±1% of the pre-compound current. Consequently, the IC₅₀ value for Motor1 is higher than 25 μM, indicating that Motor 1 does not inhibit the hERG channel.

The results of the hERG assay show that Motor1 does not inhibit the hERG channel and, therefore, does not present a serious risk of cardiac toxicity in humans. Also, our extended in vivo dosing schedules of Motor1 have shown no signs of acute toxicity in mice. There is a sparing amount of published data on the cardiac safety of cyclodextrins through the hERG assay, one study evaluated HP-β-CD (up to 4.2 mg/mL) and HP-β-CD.diclofenac using transfected HEK-293 cells in this assay and demonstrated a significant, non-dose dependent interference with the hERG. These findings are consistent with a second study in which a 6% solution of HPβCD significantly reduced the IC₅₀ of all compounds used (tetrafenadine: 266-fold reduction, cisapride: 10-fold). In contrast, clinical evaluation of γ-CD, marketed as sugammadex, indicated no relevant effects of the compound on QT interval. The fact that Captisol® is the excipient for several FDA-approved drug formulations that have not resulted in cardiac toxicity in patients speaks for its biosafety.

In Vitro Efficacy.

ABZ is a marketed drug for anti-helminthic treatment. It has low solubility in water and low permeability in the intestine after oral delivery. Motor1 increases the solubility of ABZ and thus we explored the possibility of Motor1 formulation of ABZ for systemic delivery via IV dosing. It is important to evaluate the efficacy of ABZ after binding to Motor1 to ensure that the carrier does not interfere with the bioactivity of the drug. We used the Cell Death ELISA® to establish an EC₅₀ value for the Motor1•ABZ formulation on the inhibition of tumor cell growth (FIG. 56). Once data was collected, staurosporine-treated samples were set at a 100% apoptosis (data not shown) and all other data sets were normalized to this value. The ovarian cancer cell line, SK-OV-3, incubated with increasing concentrations of Motor1•ABZ for 24 h indicated increasing levels of apoptosis as compared to the staurosporine control. An EC₅₀ value of 3.2 μM for Motor1•ABZ was calculated from a nonlinear regression analysis using GraphPad Prism 6 software. This value achieved with the Motor1•ABZ formulation is very similar to the IC₅₀ of 3.88 μM that was published for the efficacy of ABZ formulated in ethanol on SK-OV-3 cells. Consequently, we deduced that Motor1 does not significantly inhibit ABZ's capacity to reach and bind to β-tubulin within the cells and that SK-OV-3 cells may serve as xenograft tumor model for the subsequent in vivo efficacy studies.

In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Study.

Pharmacokinetic evaluation of Motor1•ABZ investigated two routes of administration, IP, which allows for repeated dosing of the drug in future in vivo efficacy studies in the mouse model, and IV, which accounts for 100% bioavailability of ABZ and its metabolites (FIG. 57 and Table 4). In the mouse model, IP administration is often used it allows for easy chronic dosing of compounds for parenteral delivery. Nevertheless, for each new drug the bioavailability after IP dosing has to be compared to the bioavailability after IV dosing which is defined as 100% bioavailability. Consequently, before proceeding into in vivo toxicity and efficacy evaluation of Motor1•ABZ, we performed a pharmacokinetic study. The experiment was conducted using 5 mice per time point and per administration method. At each of the 8 time points (5, 15, 30 min and 2, 4, 8 16, 24 h) blood was collected through cardiac puncture. In addition to ABZ, the active intermediate metabolite of ABZ, albendazole sulfoxide (ABZSO) and inactive metabolite, albendazole sulfone (ABZSO₂) were also measured in the isolated blood plasma using HPLC analysis as described further below.

TABLE 4 Pharmacokinetic study of Motor 1 ABZ revealed systemic ABZ and ABZSO bioavailability following IP administration ABZ ABZSO ABZSO₂ IV Route C_(max) (μg/mL) 2.47 ± 0.37 4.34 ± 0.31 0.50 ± 0.09 t_(max) (h) 0.083 0.5 2 AUC (μg · h/mL) 0.81 14.30 2.94 IP Route C_(max) (μg/mL) 1.56 ± 0.64 2.62 ± 0.37 0.41 ± 0.07 t_(max) (h) 0.083 0.25 2 AUC (μg · h/mL) 0.63 6.15 2.38 Absolute 78 43 81 Bioavailability (%)

Both ABZ and ABZSO were detected in the plasma of mice following IP administration indicating that the drug escapes the peritoneal cavity and reaches systemic distribution (FIG. 57 a+b). When compared to IV administration, it was found that the drug reaches systemic distribution at slightly reduced concentrations following IP administration. One bolus injection of Motor1•ABZ (681 and 3.2 mg/kg) through the IP route revealed a maximum concentration in the plasma (C_(max)) of 2.47 μg/mL for IV administration and 1.56 μg/mL for IP administration both at a t_(max) of 5 min (Table 4). The area under the curve (AUC) for ABZ was 0.81 and 0.63 μg·h/mL for IV and IP routes respectively. The percent of absolute bioavailability of ABZ was calculated to be 78% for the IP dosing. Similarly, the data showed a C_(max) of 4.34 μg/mL and a t_(max) of 30 min for ABZSO following IV administration. Following IP administration, the data showed a C_(max) of 2.62 μg/mL and a t_(max) of 15 min for ABZSO. AUC for both routes of administration were calculated to be 14.30 and 6.15 μg·h/mL for IV and IP respectively, indicating an absolute bioavailability of 43% for the active intermediate metabolite ABZSO. The C_(max) for ABZSO₂ were found to be 0.50 and 0.41 μg/mL for the IV and IP routes respectively and t_(max) was 2 h for both routes. The AUC for ABZSO₂ was calculated to be 2.94 μg·h/mL for IV and 2.38 μg·h/mL for IP administration.

Our data show 78% and 43% of absolute bioavailability for ABZ and ABZSO, respectively. This data demonstrates that IP administration significantly reduces the amount of available active drug ABZSO when compared to IV dosing but it also shows that ABZ and ABZSO can have access to systemic distribution after injection of Motor1•ABZ into the peritoneal cavity. Consequently, IP administration will underestimate the therapeutic potential of Motor1•ABZ for future IV delivery in humans. Various pharmacokinetic studies evaluating ABZ plasma concentrations following IP and oral administration have been conducted. One such investigation evaluated mouse plasma concentrations following IP administration of 50 mg/kg of ABZ solubilized in hydroxypropyl-β-CD (HP-β-CD) or 0.5% hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC). HPMC.ABZ administration resulted in an AUC of 8.1 μg·h/mL for ABZ and 14.4 μg·h/mL for ABZSO. In contrast, administration with HP-β-CD.ABZ showed significantly higher values of AUC (18.7 and 105.7 μg·h/mL) indicating improved pharmacokinetics. The formulation of ABZ in HP-β-CD and HPMC achieved higher total amounts of ABZ and ABZSO delivered into the plasma compared to Motor1•ABZ delivery. Nevertheless, this study did not compare the IP delivery to IV in order to assess the percent of absolute bioavailability achieved. This value would allow direct comparison of the relative efficacy of the delivery methods because we only dosed 3.2 mg/kg ABZ that is about 15 times less than in the described study. Overall, the pharmacokinetics analysis demonstrates that ABZ and the active intermediate metabolite ABZSO can be systemically delivered via IP administration of Motor1•ABZ complex.

In Vivo Maximum Tolerated Dose

ABZ is a widely used drug with a well-established safety record for oral delivery and treatment of gastrointestinal helminthic infections. In mice, the repeated oral dosing of 30-40 mg/kg/day of the drug for 4-90 days resulted in no significant signs of toxicity. In an attempt to formulate ABZ for parenteral delivery many different excipients have been used to increase its solubility. These new formulations are tested for toxicity as they are developed. Here we attempted to establish a safe dosing schedule for Motor1•ABZ prior to commencing with in vivo treatment studies. For this purpose, a maximum tolerated dose (MTD) study was conducted using outbred female Swiss Webster mice separated into the following groups (n=7): untreated (UT), Motor1 (681 mg/kg) and Motor1•ABZ at increasing doses of ABZ (0.5, 1.4, 2.3 and 3.2 mg/kg) (FIG. 58). Mice were dosed once daily for 14 days through the IP route with Motor1 or increasing concentrations of Motor1•ABZ. Throughout the study, all mice maintained weights well above 80% of their original starting weight (humane endpoint). No visual signs of sickness or distress were observed during the dosing or the subsequent observation periods. Accordingly, the highest amount of 3.2 mg/kg of ABZ formulated with 681 mg/kg Motor1 was chosen for future in vivo efficacy studies.

Previous studies explored the formulation of ABZ with different excipients; for example, one study conducted using 5, 10, 25, 40 and 50 mg/kg of HP-β-CD.ABZ demonstrated no toxicity. However, following on bolus IP injection of 60 mg/kg of HP-β-CD.ABZ resulted in immobility and subsequent euthanization within 2 h of dosing. This toxicity was primarily attributed to the excipient, which consisted of a combination of HP-β-CD and glacial acetic acid. CDs alone, in a neutral pH, cannot efficiently increase ABZ solubility and, as a result, additional excipients like acetic acid must be used in combination to lower the pH and increase CD-mediated solubilization of ABZ. In this instance, a dosing HP-β-CD.ABZ that contained more than 0.5 mL/kg of glacial acetic acid resulted in severe toxicity, in turn, limiting the maximum drug dose deliverable to 50 mg/kg. Other common solubilizing agents used to formulate ABZ are 0.5% hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) and 0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). Both excipients can increase ABZ solubility to 150 mg/kg with little signs of toxicity following IP administration. However, these formulations have resulted in low systemic distribution due to limited absorption following oral and IP administration, suggesting they would be ineffective unless used for localized treatment of intestinal or cancer of peritoneal cavity resident organs.

In Vivo Motor1•ABZ Efficacy.

The formulation of ABZ with Motor1 allowed for increased systemic delivery of ABZ when compared to other formulation methods like 0.5% CMC. A tumor treatment study using Motor1 at 681 mg/kg or the same amount of Motor1 formulated with 3.2 mg/kg ABZ with either a once daily or twice daily dosing was conducted in order to address the therapeutic potential of this novel formulation. Xenograft tumors were established using the SK-OV-3 ovarian cancer cell line in athymic mice.

In the first experiment (FIG. 59 a-c), treatment started once tumors reached a volume of approximately 300 mm³ at which point they were in a phase of rapid growth. Mice, in all groups, maintained weights well above 80% of their original starting weight (FIG. 59 a). Furthermore, no signs of sickness or distress were observed indicating mice maintain good health throughout treatment. This result was impressive considering that high doses of both Motor1 and Motor1•ABZ were administered once and twice daily for 50 consecutive days. This data not only further supports the safety of Motor1, but also suggests that Motor1•ABZ is non-toxic toward healthy cells. This aggressive treatment schedule led to decreased tumor growth rates in the SK-OV-3 xenografts (FIG. 59 b). The slope of tumor growth rate for the UT group was 49.15±2.0 mm⁻³/day, for the Motor1 group 43.3±2.0 mm⁻³/day, ABZ once daily dosing 26.7±1.5 mm⁻³/day, and finally 21.3±1.4 mm⁻³/day for the Motor1•ABZ twice daily dosing. When compared to the UT group, the Motor1 tumor growth rate was found to be significantly different with a p-value of 0.04. Both once and twice daily Motor1•ABZ dosing tumor growth rates were found to be significantly different from the UT growth rate with p<0.0001. Furthermore, log-rank analysis of the survival curves (FIG. 59 c) indicated significant differences between once and twice Motor1•ABZ daily dosing groups when compared to the UT group. The Motor1 survival curve was found to not be significantly different from that of the UT group.

A second in vivo efficacy study was conducted using only the once daily dosing and treatment began when tumors were at a volume of approximately 100 mm³, before the period of increased growth rate (FIG. 59 d-f). Most mice in Motor1 and Motor1•ABZ groups maintained weights well above 80% of their initial starting weight, however, one mouse in the UT group dropped down to 81% of its starting weight on day 42 but regained weight up to 89% prior to its euthanization (FIG. 59 d). This experiment further supported a high safety profile for Motor1 and Motor1•ABZ. Tumor volume showed significantly attenuated tumor growth rates for the Motor1•ABZ treated group during the 5 week dosing period, however, once dosing concluded, tumors resumed rapid growth (FIG. 59 e). Nevertheless, the slopes of the rapid tumor growth phases for the UT, Motor1 and Motor1•ABZ groups were as follows 42.9±2.8, 35.4±1.9 and 24.4±1.1 mm⁻³/day respectively. Statistical analysis presented with a p-value of 0.02 when the Motor1 slope was compared to the UT group indicating a significant difference between the two tumor growth rates. A likewise comparison between the Motor1•ABZ and UT groups indicated an extremely significant difference in tumor growth rates (p<0.0001). This suggests that though the tumor growth rate increases after ceasing Motor1•ABZ administration, the treatment still results in an attenuated tumor growth when compared to the UT group. Finally, log-rank analysis showed that the Motor1•ABZ survival curve was significantly different from the UT group while the Motor1 group was not significantly different from the control group (FIG. 59 f).

It will be recognized from the foregoing that both of the in vivo tumor efficacy studies described herein indicate that Motor1 and Motor1•ABZ are both non-toxic at high doses and Motor1•ABZ is able to extend mouse survival by attenuating the growth rates of SK-OV-3 tumors. Several in vivo efficacy studies have been previously conducted with ABZ. Work done with HP-β-CD.ABZ and HPMC•ABZ formulations showed moderate increases to survival with just one IP dosing. Further studies with these systems seemed to be limited due to high toxicity as mentioned previously. The suppression of malignant ascites was observed when mice bearing OVCAR-3 (human ovarian adenocarcinoma) received 150 mg/kg of ABZ 3 times a week for 4 weeks through IP. It should be noted, however, that this study, like many other ABZ efficacy studies, utilized a xenograft model established in the peritoneal cavity making it a localized, intratumoral administration system. In contrast, one study showed moderate improvements in mouse survival when daily oral doses (50 and 150 mg/kg) of ABZ tablets mixed with 50% sesame oil were used to treat glioblastoma multiforme, an aggressive form of brain cancer. A second study conducted using SKHEP-1 (human liver adenocarcinoma) xenografts located on the flank of mice required a daily oral dose of 300 mg/kg of ABZ in sesame oil to see an antitumor effect. The necessity for these high doses of ABZ has been attributed to rapid metabolism, low absorption and inaccessibility to the tumor. However, in the case of Motor1•ABZ (FIG. 59), promising results with a low daily dose of 3.2 mg/kg of ABZ suggests that Motor1•ABZ is likely more efficiently absorbed through the peritoneal cavity into systemic circulation and reaches the tumor at a higher dose than the previous studies mentioned above.

It will also be apparent from the foregoing that the present disclosure demonstrates proof-of-concept via an in vivo evaluation of Motor1 as a solubilizing excipient for insoluble drugs. The ability of Motor1 to solubilize a wide range of drugs, its low toxicity, and the in vivo efficacy of Motor1•ABZ suggests that Motor1 may become an important addition to the current toolbox of solubilizing excipients available to the pharmaceutical industry.

The following materials and methods were used to obtain data presented in this Example 8.

Materials:

Trypsin (Gibco® 15090-046) was purchased from Gibco® and EDTA (FisherScientific 02793-500) was purchased from Fisher Scientific. ABZ (VWR 1012553) was purchased from VWR. Staurosporine (Sigma-Aldrich 56942) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Motor1 was synthesized as described above.

Bacterial Culture:

Strains were obtained as part of the Salmonella Mutagenicity Test Kit (MOLTOX® 31-100.2). Flasks were inoculated with the four Salmonella typhimurium strains (TA135, TA1537, TA98, & TA100) and incubated at 37° C., 150 rpm for 16 hours. The cultures were serially diluted and plated to determine the bacterial titer for each culture.

AMES Test.

The Salmonella Mutagenicity Test Kit was used to assess the mutagenic potential of the compounds according to the procedure provided by the vendor. Positive controls included known mutagens: Sodium Azide (1.5 μg/plate; TA1535 and TA100), Daunomycin (6 μg/plate; TA 1537), ICR 191 Acridine (1 μg/plate; TA98), and 2-Aminoanthracene (10 μg/plate; all +S9 samples). Negative controls consisted of the solvent used to solubilize the test material (water, DMSO, and phosphate buffer). Each set of experiments was also performed with or without rat liver S9 fraction in the top agar layer in order to address the potential mutagenicity of metabolites created in the liver.

hERG Assay.

The human Ether-a-go-go-Related Gene (hERG) assay was performed by Apredica®, a Cytoprex company. This automated patch clamp study was conducted using Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) transfected with the hERG ion channel. Motor1 concentrations up to 25 μM were used along with quinidine as a positive control. The ion channel current was tested before and after the test compounds were added to the cells. The data is normalized with respect to the current in each well before the compound is added to the patch clamp.

Cell Culture.

SK-OV-3 cells (ATCC# HTB-77) cells were grown in McCoy's 5A Media (ATCC#30-2007) with 10% Fetal calf serum (FCS; Hyclone) and 1% Penicillin/Streptomycin (Pen/Strep; CellGro® 30-001-CI) at 37° C. and 5% CO₂.

Ex vivo Bioactivity Study.

SK-OV-3 cells were plated in a 96 well plate at 5×10⁵ cells/well. Cells were allowed to adhere overnight and were then treated with increasing concentrations of Motor1•ABZ for 24 h. Cell Death ELISA® (Roche 11544675001) was performed according to the instructions of the vendor. Data from six samples (n=6) were combined and normalized relative to 100% cell death induced by staurosporine according to Equation 1. EC₅₀ value was calculated via nonlinear regression analysis using GraphPad Prism 5 software.

$\begin{matrix} {{\frac{{sample}\mspace{11mu} ({abs})}{{Staurosporine}\mspace{14mu} \left( {{ave}\mspace{14mu} {abs}} \right)} \times 100} = {\% \mspace{14mu} {apoptosis}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

Animal Studies.

Animal studies were conducted at the University of Maryland, College Park, Md. under the approval and guidance of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC; protocol #R-14-02).

Pharmacokinetic Study.

A total of 40 outbred Swiss Webster mice (NCI; strain code 551) were randomly separated into 8 groups of 5 mice. At each of the selected 8 time points (5, 15, 30 min and 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 h, blood was harvested by cardiac puncture from mice that were previously injected once with Motor1•ABZ (681 and 3.2 mg/kg) through the intraperitoneal route. Plasma was purified from the blood samples by centrifugation at 2000× g for 15 min. Plasma concentrations of ABZ, ABZSO and ABZSO₂ over time were measured using HPLC (Microsorb-MV 100-5 C18 column; 5 μm, 250×4.6 mm)

This procedure was repeated for 40 additional mice using the intravenous route of administration. All time points and other experimental parameters were the same as mentioned above.

Plasma Extraction.

A Strata NH₂ (55 μm, 70 Å) ion exchange resin column (Phenomenex, Product number 8B-S009-EAK) was preconditioned by rinsing with NaOAc buffered H₂O (1 mL, 20 mM, pH 3.0). An aliquot of each plasma sample (150 μL) was loaded onto the column. The resin was then washed with 1.0 mL of a solution of 0.1% formic acid in MeOH:H₂O (9:1). The eluent was evaporated to dryness and resuspended in HPLC mobile phase (vide supra). The sample was vortexed (5 min) and then centrifuged (2000 rpm, 5 min, 20° C.). The supernatant was collected and was analyzed by HPLC as described below.

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis.

The HPLC analysis was performed using a Microsorb-MV 100-5 C18 column (5 μm, 250×4 6 mm) on a Varian ProStar HPLC system. The mobile phase contained 1.3% NEt₃ in a mixture of H₂O:MeOH:CH₃CN (50:34:16) whose pH was adjusted to 3.2 by using 85% orthophosphoric acid. The injection volume was 20 μL (20 μL injection loop was used) and the analytes were detected at 295 nm wavelength using a variable wavelength UV/Vis detector. Each sample was run for 15 min with flow rate of 1.00 mL/min. Under these conditions, ABZSO, ABZSO2 and ABZ were detected at 4.5, 5.8 and 13.6 min respectively. The peaks for ABZ, ABZSO, and ABZSO₂ in the HPLC spectra were integrated using the software supplied by the instrument manufacturer and converted into concentrations in μg/mL using calibration curves that had been created previously (FIGS. S1-S4 and Tables 51-2).

Maximum Tolerated Dose (MTD) Study.

A total of 35 female, outbred Swiss Webster mice (NCI; strain code 551) were injected daily by the intraperitoneal (IP) route for 14 days and then observed daily for an additional two weeks. Mice were dosed by weight (10 mL/kg). Treatment groups were Untreated, Motor1 (681 mg/kg), and increasing concentration of ABZ in Motor1 (0.5, 1.4, 2.3 and 3.2 mg/kg). Each treatment group consisted of 7 mice. Mice were visually observed and weight was monitored every other day as an indication of health.

In Vivo Efficacy Study.

SK-OV-3 cells were prepared at 1×10⁷ cells/mL in 33% Matrigel® Matrix (Corning 354248) solution. A total of 40 female, athymic NCr-nu/nu (NCI; strain code 553) were injected subcutaneously over the neck with 100 μL of cell solution (1×10⁶ cells). In the first study, treatment began once tumors had reached a volume of 250-300 mm³ Mice were dosed via IP route with Motor1 (681 mg/kg), Motor1•ABZ (3.2 mg/kg) once daily, and Motor1•ABZ (3.2 mg/kg) twice daily for 50 consecutive days.

The second experiment involved 35 consecutive days of Motor1 (681 mg/kg) and Motor1•ABZ (3.2 mg/kg) dosing. Treatment started when tumors were at a volume of 100-150 mm³ Both studies included an untreated control group and used 10 mice per experimental group. Mice were dosed by weight (10 mL/kg). Mice were sacrificed at either 20% weight loss or if tumor volume reached 1500 mm³.

Statistics.

GraphPad Prism 6 was used to calculate statistical significance, slopes of fitted lines and EC₅₀ and IC₅₀ values via nonlinear regression analysis. Student t-test was performed unless stated otherwise. Log-rank test was used to analyze survival curves. The pharmacokinetic parameters C_(max), t_(max), and area under the curve (AUC) values were also calculated using GraphPad Prism 6. *p=0.01-0.05, **p=0.001-0.1, ***p<0.001.

Preparation of the ABZ formulation using Motor1. We prepared the required solution of Motor1 (60 mM) by dissolving the calculated quantity of Motor1 in the required volume of NaH₂PO₄ buffered H₂O (20 mM, pH 7.4). The solution was stirred for 1 h at 25° C. An aliquot of this solution (600 μL) was dried under high vacuum and then reconstituted in D₂O (600 μL) containing benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid (1.00 mM) as internal standard and the ¹H NMR was recorded. Integration of the resonances due to internal standard relative to those of Motor1 allow us to determine the actual concentration of Motor1 which is typically less than 60 mM. Accordingly, the calculated additional amount of solid Motor1 was added until the 1H NMR analysis indicated [Motor1]=60 mM. Next, ABZ (slight excess relative to the desired concentration) was added to the solution of Motor1 (60 mM) and the mixture was stirred for 12 h at 25° C. The solution was then centrifuged and finally filtered. The final concentration of Motor1 and ABZ in solution was determined by concentrating an aliquot (600 μL) of the solution, reconstituting in D₂O (600 μL) containing benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid (1.00 mM) as internal standard and the ¹H NMR was recorded. Integration of the resonances due to internal standard relative to those of Motor1 and ABZ allow us to determine the final concentrations of Motor1 and ABZ.

Preparation of calibration curves. In order to determine the concentrations of ABZ, ABZSO and ABZSO2 in the plasma samples, we first needed to create standard calibration curves. For this purpose, we separately weighed out the calculated amounts of ABZ, ABZSO or ABZSO2 and dissolved the compound in the calculated volumes of MeOH in order to achieve the following stock solutions (ABZ=430 μg/mL; ABZSO=300 μg/mL; ABZSO2=420 μg/mL). Aliquots of these stock solutions were evaporated and then reconstituted in the HPLC mobile phase and diluted further with mobile phase in order to achieve the following concentrations: 6.72, 3.36, 1.68, 0.84, 0.42, 0.21, 0.105, 0.052, 0.026 ng/mL of ABZ, 9.37, 4.69, 2.34, 1.17, 0.586, 0.293, 0.146, 0.073, 0.037 ng/mL of ABZSO, 3.28, 1.64, 0.82, 0.41, 0.205, 0.103, 0.051, 0.026 ng/mL of ABZSO₂. These samples were analyzed by HPLC as described above. Plots of concentration versus peak area were constructed and were linear (R²>0.99) over the indicated concentration range. These calibration curves were subsequently used to determine the concentrations in the plasma samples.

TABLE 5 The concentrations of ABZ, ABZSO and ABZSO₂ obtained following the intravenous (IV) route of administration at 8 selected time points for 8 groups of 5 mice. The concentrations are in μg/mL and are measured from HPLC. Mouse 1 2 3 4 5 Time 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b 5a 5b t = 5 min 1.91 1.97 2.87 2.86 2.23 2.50 nd nd 2.53 2.51 ABZ 2.88 2.97 1.93 1.84 2.74 2.63 2.03 2.07 2.33 2.31 ABZSO 0.313 0.286 0.3 0.206 0.186 0.233 0.213 0.28 0.36 0.3 ABZSO₂ t = 15 min 0.606 0.702 0.906 0.729 0.64 0.516 0.612 ABZ 3.49 3.36 3.37 3.1 2.90 3.88 3.58 ABZSO 0.406 nd 0.36 0.325 0.31 0.52 0.556 ABZSO₂ t = 30 min 0.186 nd 0.40 Sample 0.234 0.37 0.29 ABZ 3.96 4.8 4.21 missing 4.1 3.74 4.24 ABZSO 0.27 0.3 0.53 0.34 0.556 0.432 ABZSO₂ t = 2 h 0.145 0.157 0.095 nd nd 0.078 0.085 ABZ 1.59 2.11 1.59 2.1 2.49 2.81 2.4 ABZSO 0.549 0.546 0.356 0.54 nd 0.49 0.504 ABZSO₂ t = 4 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ 0.614 0.923 0.821 0.777 0.65 ABZSO 0.207 0.28 0.225 0.204 0.144 ABZSO₂ t = 8 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ 0.33 0.404 0.433 0.51 0.475 ABZSO 0.106 0.109 0.25 0.19 0.15 ABZSO₂ t = 16 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ 0.03 0.047 0.052 0.072 0.042 ABZSO nd Nd nd nd nd ABZSO₂ t = 24 h Sample nd Sample nd nd ABZ missing nd missing nd nd ABZSO nd nd nd ABZSO₂

TABLE 6 The concentrations of ABZ, ABZSO and ABZSO₂ obtained following the intraperitoneal (IP) route of administration at 8 selected timepoints for 8 groups of 5 mice. The concentrations are in μg/mL and are measured from HPLC. Mouse Time 1 2 3 4 5 t = 5 0.964 1.146 0.907 2.32 1.86 ABZ 0.298 0.400 0.817 0.816 0.6 ABZSO 0.367 0.166 0.407 0.209 0.203 ABZSO₂ t = 15 min 0.380 0.350 nd nd 0.410 ABZ 2.82 2.46 2.16 2.91 2.934 ABZSO 0.530 0.203 0.205 0.28 0.282 ABZSO₂ t = 30 min 0.292 0.203 nd 0.352 0.321 ABZ 3.05 2.35 2.65 2.32 2.48 ABZSO 0.567 0.314 0.215 0.493 0.232 ABZSO₂ t = 2 h 0.122 0.097 0.086 0.075 0.105 ABZ 1.06 0.564 0.463 0.764 0.888 ABZSO 0.405 0.411 0.311 0.448 0.473 ABZSO₂ t = 4 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ 0.417 0.361 0.431 nd 0.091 ABZSO 0.253 0.160 0.146 0.144 0.081 ABZSO₂ t = 8 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ 0.183 0.158 nd nd 0.131 ABZSO 0.098 0.142 0.19 0.15 0.076 ABZSO₂ t = 16 h nd nd nd nd Nd ABZ 0.044 nd nd nd nd ABZSO nd nd nd nd nd ABZSO₂ t = 24 h nd nd nd nd nd ABZ nd nd nd nd nd ABZSO nd nd nd nd nd ABZSO₂

In addition to the foregoing data, we also demonstrate that Motor1 and Motor2 can increase the solubility of 2-methoxy estradiol (Table 7 and FIG. 52). The solubility of β-estradiol was determined in the presence of Host1 (Motor1).

The experiments were done in deuterated phosphate buffer (20 mM NaHPO₄, D₂O, pH=7.4). An excess of solid methoxy estradiol was stirred with known concentration of Motor1 at RT for 12 h. The mixture was then filtered and 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid (1.0 mM) was added to the filtrate as the internal reference. ¹H NMR was used to determine the concentration of β-estradiol in solution by comparing the integrals for methoxy estradiol (−0.11 ppm, 3H) versus the singlet for 1,3,5-benzene tricarboxylic acid at 8.32 ppm (3H). The ¹H NMR data is shown in FIG. 52.

TABLE 7 Solubility enhancement of methoxy estradiol with Motor1. [Motor1](mM) 10 20 [Methoxy estradiol](mM) 2.35 4.41

While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to specific embodiments (some of which are preferred embodiments), it should be understood by those having skill in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as disclosed herein. 

What is claimed is: 1) A method for enhancing the therapeutic effect of a poorly water soluble drug in an individual in need of the therapeutic effect, wherein the poorly soluble drug has a solubility of less than 1.0 mM in water or an aqueous buffer, the method comprising administering to the individual a composition comprising the poorly water soluble drug and a compound having the following structure:

wherein each R is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, C1 to C20 heterocyclic group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, hydroxy, or ether group; wherein, optionally, adjacent R groups form a C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring or heterocyclic ring; wherein each

is independently a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring system or C₂ to C₂₀ heterocyclic ring system, wherein the ring system comprises one or more rings; wherein at least one ring system has at least one solubilizing group selected from sulfonic acid group, sulfonate salt group, phosphonic acid group, phosphonate salt group, and polyethylene glycol group; wherein, optionally, the ring system has a targeting group; and wherein n is 1 to
 5. 2) The method of claim 1, wherein each

is independently a C₅ to C₂₀ carbocyclic ring having one of the following structures:

wherein at each occurrence of

R¹ to R¹⁶ is independently hydrogen, C₁ to C₂₀ alkyl group, halo group, hydroxyl group, nitro group, carboxylic acid group, ester group, amide group, ether group, C₃ to C₂₀ carbocyclic group, or C₁ to C₂₀ heterocyclic group, provided that at least one of R¹ to R¹⁶ in the compound has the following structure:

wherein LG is a linking group and X is the solubilizing group; and wherein optionally one or more adjacent R¹ to R¹⁶ groups are connected forming a carbocyclic ring or heterocyclic ring. 3) The method of claim 2, wherein

has the following structure:

wherein each i is 1 to
 20. 4) The method of claim 2, wherein at least one of the R¹ to R¹⁶ groups in the structure has the following structure:

and wherein LG is a linking group and wherein TG is the targeting group. 5) The method of claim 2, wherein the

groups are the same. 6) The c method of claim 2, wherein the compound has one of the following structures:

wherein Z is PEG group having a molecular weight of 200 to 10,000. 7) The method of claim 1, wherein the compound has one of the following structures:

wherein A⁺ is H⁺, Na⁺, K+, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, H₄N⁺, Et₃NH⁺, Me₄N⁺, (HOCH₂CH₂)₃NH⁺, or a cationic form of ethylenediamine, piperazine, and trishydroxymethyl aminomethane (TRIS). 8) The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is a salt, a partial salt, a hydrate, a polymorph or a mixture thereof, and a stereoisomer and all mixtures thereof. 